Gender Differences in Holland Vocational Personality Types
By Turner, Sherri L Conkel, Julia L; Starkey, Michael; Landgraf, Rachel; Lapan, Richard T; Siewert, Jason J; Reich, Allison; Trotter, Michelle J; Neumaier, Eric R; Huang, Ju-Ping
The study in this article examined gender and ethnic differences in the development of Holland (1997) personality types among inner- city adolescents. Results showed gender but not ethnic differences in vocational personality types and their predictors, and suggest different pathways to the development of these types for boys and girls. Suggestions are highlighted for providing school counseling interventions based on study results. The vocational development of inner-city adolescents is often impaired by a number of factors. These factors include a lack of opportunity related to low socioeconomic status (41.6% of all Americans who live in poverty live in the inner cities; Dreier, 2004); lower high school graduation rates, with overall graduation rates of inner-city adolescents less than 50% (Greene, 2002); less access to working role models (Fleischer & Dressner, 2002); less exposure to direct career experience; and less access to information regarding career options (Turner & Lapan, 2003). Further, researchers have shown that restricted patterns of career aspirations among inner-city adolescents appear as early as middle school, with these young people having less variability in their interest patterns, and with ethnic minority inner-city adolescents having greater interests in less prestigious but potentially more available occupations such as manual labor or outdoor work (Turner & Lapan). Finding ways to assist inner-city young people to participate in meaningful career development activities may help ameliorate some of the challenges they face as they seek to prepare for and embark upon their life’s work.
The American School Counselor Association supports school counselors’ efforts to help students focus on academic, personal/ social, and career development so they achieve success in school and are prepared to lead fulfilling lives as responsible members of society. One primary way of assisting young people’s career development is by helping them understand their own intrinsic interests and abilities through self-exploration and career exploration. The most frequently used classification system guiding this exploration is Holland’s (1997) theory of vocational personality types and work environments.
Holland’s (1997) theory defines vocational personalities as those aspects of one’s character that are stable, prominent, and exhibited across a wide range of important career, social, and personal contexts. According to Holland, there are six vocational personality types: Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C). People have unique combinations of these six types, although most people can be described by a single most prominent type, with other types providing moderating influences on their behavior and preferences. In brief, people with Realistic personalities tend to prefer working with machines, tools, plants, or animals. People with Investigative personalities tend to have interest in math and science. People with Artistic personalities tend to have artistic, innovational, intuitional, and aesthetic interests. People with Social personalities tend to be motivated by altruism across the variety of contexts that make up their lives. People with Enterprising personalities tend to enjoy influencing, leading, managing, and persuading. People with Conventional personalities like to work with data and numbers.
People with specific vocational personality types are attracted to activities and occupations associated with those types, and they demonstrate behavioral repertoires, patterns of likes and dislikes, and concordant attitudes and values that support their developing interests (Holland, 1997). For example, people with an Enterprising personality might believe that the sales profession is valuable and important to the economy and the welfare of humankind. Additionally, people who make vocational, social, and leisure choices that are congruent with their Holland vocational personality types experience greater life satisfaction than do people who make choices that are less congruent (Holland).
There are several views of how vocational personalities develop. Holland (1997) hypothesized that vocational personalities are formed as young people become familiar with their own abilities, develop competencies in accordance with those abilities, and begin to understand their own innate interests in various types of activities and occupations. However, Gottfredson, in her Circumscription and Compromise Theory (CCT; Gottfredson & Lapan, 1997), proposed that the formation of vocational personalities is highly influenced by what young adolescents believe are acceptable vocational roles for adult men and women. According to this theory, young people begin to circumscribe their career, leisure, and academic choices based on these gender-role perceptions (rather than their self-assessments of abilities, competencies, and interests) in early adolescence, so that the range of careers for which they are preparing becomes progressively narrower throughout middle school, high school, and beyond. Circumscription causes a premature foreclosure of options, leading Gottfredson to suggest that counselors work to offset this process by exposing young people to a broad spectrum of careers through exploration and awareness activities.
In researching the developmental aspects of Holland’s theory, Oosterveld (1994) found that vocational personalities are related to interests in activities and occupations, self-estimates of competencies, and self-estimates of abilities, although these variables do not contribute equally to each personality type. In studying CCT theory, researchers also have produced a substantial body of evidence demonstrating the predictive validity of circumscription. Researchers have shown, for example, that circumscription affects career interests (Gottfredson & Lapan, 1997; Lapan, Adams, Turner, & Hinkelman, 2000; Turner & Lapan, 2002). In this research, young women demonstrated interests in careers they perceived as traditionally female (Artistic or Social careers), and young men in careers they perceived as traditionally male (Realistic or Investigative careers).
Researchers also have examined the effects of circumscription on self-competency ratings. In these studies, young children demonstrate uniformly high and undifferentiated self-assessments of their competencies (Phillips & Zimmerman, 1990; Roberts & Petersen, 1992). However, over time, self-competency ratings become more differentiated, and they decrease in magnitude for occupations that are not perceived as appropriate for people of their gender (e.g., by the time young people reach middle school, girls’ Investigative self-competency ratings decrease, and boys’ Artistic and Social self- competency ratings decrease; Tracey, 2002).
Extending the findings of these previous studies, we developed a research project to test the relative strength of associations of Holland’s vocational personality types and their hypothesized predictors and the effects of circumscription (hypothesized by Gottfredson) on young adolescents’ developing vocational personalities. We chose inner-city adolescents as our participants because of the challenges this population faces in optimal career development, and because previous research has shown that innercity young people have unique interest patterns (Turner & Lapan, 2003) and therefore may constitute a distinct population with different career support needs than adolescents from other socioeconomic- status or geographical groups. Thus, we hypothesized that (a) there would be significant differences in Holland vocational personality types as a function of gender and ethnicity; (b) there would be significant gender and ethnic differences in self-estimated abilities, self-estimated competencies, interests in activities, and interests in occupations across the personality types; and (c) the primary predictors of boys’ and girls’ vocational personality types would be different, especially in light of potential samegender/ cross-gender differences in personality type development.
METHOD
Participants
Data were collected from eighth- and ninth-grade students at three middle schools serving inner-city adolescents in two cities in the upper Midwest. Each city has a population of greater than one million and is socioeconomically similar to many other American cities, with high-poverty areas inhabited by primarily ethnic minorities. Eligibility for free and reduced lunches at these schools was reported by the districts to range from 89% to 96%, demonstrating the level of poverty among families whose children were students there.
Participants from these schools were 152 innercity middle-school adolescents. Of these participants, 30.9% (n = 47) were African American, 21.7% (n = 33) were Asian American, 3.3% (n = 5) were Caucasian American, 7.9% (n = 12) were Hispanic/ Latino, and 36.2% (n = 55) were Native American. Mean age was 13.13 years (SD = .97); 45.4% (n = 69) were males, and 54.6% (n = 83) were females. Procedures
Students were recruited from social studies classes in each of the participating schools. They were administered research materials by the principal investigators and four research assistants. Participants received no compensation for participating in this study. Once the data were collected, the researchers made the decision that due to the small number of Hispanic/Latino and Caucasian Americans in the sample, their scores would not be included as part of the analyses, for a final N of 135.
Measure
The measure used was the Self-Directed Search (SDS), Form R (Holland, 1994b). This instrument measures participants’ interests in activities and interests in occupations as well as solicits ratings of self-estimated abilities and ratings of self- competencies. The six Interests in Activities Scales measure whether participants are attracted to individual activities associated with each personality type. Sample items from the Interests in Activities Scales (rated 1 = I like this activity or 0 = I dislike this activity) are "Fix electrical things" (R) and "Read scientific books or magazines" (I). The six Self-Estimated Competencies Scales measure whether participants believe they can competently engage in various activities associated with each personality type. Sample items from the Self-Estimated Competencies Scales (rated 1 = Yes, I can do this activity well or 0 = No, I cannot do this activity well) are "I can do a painting, watercolor, or sculpture" (A) and "I am good at helping people who are upset or troubled" (S).
The six Occupational Interests Scales measure whether occupations associated with each vocational personality type are interesting or appealing to participants. Sample items from the Occupational Interests Scales (rated 1 = Yes, I am interested in this occupation or 0 = No, I am not interested in this occupation) are "airplane mechanic" (R), "sales manager" (E), and "bank teller" (C). The six Self-Estimated Abilities Scales measure the extent to which participants believe they possess the abilities to learn tasks related to specific vocational types. Sample items from the Self- Estimated Abilities Scales (rated 1 to 7, with 1 = low ability, 4 = average ability, and 7 = high ability) are "artistic ability" (A) and "teaching ability" (S). (The Occupational Daydreams activity, which is part of the SDS, was not scored for use in this study because of the variability in completion rates among the participants.)
Summing of all scales corresponding to each Holland type creates a vocational personality score representing that type (e.g., summing all R scales creates the R Vocational Personality Score). Vocational personality scores then are compared to determine an individual’s Holland vocational personality type, with a higher vocational personality score indicating a tendency to more frequently express characteristics indicative of that type of personality.
The scales from the Self-Directed Search have shown high reliability and validity across a variety of populations. For example, SDS scores have been found to relate to other vocational personality variables such as self-efficacy expectations among high school students (Feehan & Johnston, 1999), and extraversion, openness to experience, and conscientiousness among Navy trainees (Gottfredson, Jones, & Holland, 1993). In addition, SDS scales have demonstrated internal consistency reliability estimates of r = 0.75 to r = 0.93 in both adolescent and adult populations (Holland, Fritzsche, & Powell, 1994). In this current study, internal consistency estimates for combined Holland type scales for all ethnic groups represented were r = 0.86 to r = 0.93 for boys, and r = 0.87 to r = 0.92 for girls. Using a chi^sup 2^ analysis, we found no significant differences among participants from the three schools in any of the mean scale scores at p < .01. This criterion value was set for cross-school comparisons to avoid Type I error.
RESULTS
Our first hypothesis was that there would be significant ethnic and gender differences in Holland vocational personality type scores. To test this hypothesis, we conducted one 2 (gender, ethnicity) by 6 (Holland vocational personality type scores) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Results showed no ethnic differences. There were gender (F [6,128] = 14.07, p < .001) differences, with boys having significantly greater R (F = 36.64, p < .001) and I (F = 6.80, p < .011) vocational personality type scores, and girls having significantly greater A (F = 9.74, p < .003) vocational personality type scores. Means and standard deviations for this equation by gender are shown in Table 1.
Our second hypothesis was that there would be significant gender and ethnic differences in self-estimated abilities, self-estimated competencies, interests in activities, and interests in occupations across Holland types. To test this hypothesis, we conducted four 2 (ethnicity, gender) by 6 (Holland types) MANOVAs using the means scores for the six Occupational Interests Scales for the first MANOVA, the six Interests in Activities Scales for the second MANOVA, the six Self-Estimated Abilities Scales for the third MANOVA, and the six Self-Estimated Competencies Scales for the fourth MANOVA. Results showed no significant ethnic differences.
There were four significant gender differences. First, in the area of Occupational Interests (F [6, 128] = 12.03, p < .001), boys had greater interests than did girls in R (F = 32.59, p < .001) and I (F = 6.32, p < .014) occupations, and girls had greater interests in A (F = 8.68, p < .005) occupations. Second, in the area of Interests in Activities (F [6, 128] = 7.37, p < .001), boys had greater interests in R (F = 24.36, p < .001) activities, and girls had greater interests in A (F = 4.19, p < .044) and E (F = 5.58, p < .021) activities. Third, in the area of Self-Estimated Abilities (F [6, 128] = 7.05, p < .001), boys had greater self-estimated R abilities (F = 17.85, p < .001), and girls had greater self- estimated S abilities (F = 4.36, p < .040). Fourth, in the area of Self-Estimated Competencies (F [6, 128] = 9.47, p < .001), boys had greater self-estimated R (F = 19.72, p < .001) and I (F = 8.39, p < .005) competencies, and girls had greater self-estimated A (F = 12.18, p < .002) competencies. Means and standard deviations for these equations by gender are shown in Table 1.
Our third hypothesis was that the primary predictors of boys’ and girls’ vocational personality type scores would be different, especially in light of potential same-gender/cross-gender differences in personality type development. To test this hypothesis, six stepwise regressions were conducted to ascertain the proportion of variance of each predictor (Occupational Interests, Interests in Activities, Self-Estimated Competencies, and Self- Estimated Abilities) in the predicted variables (vocational personality type scores for each Holland type). For example, R Occupational Interests, R Interests in Activities, R Self-Estimated Competencies, and R Self-Estimated Abilities were regressed against R type scores.
Results indicated that for Realistic vocational personality type scores, interests in R occupations entered the equation first, accounting for the majority of variance for both boys and girls (71.4% and 68.2%, respectively). For Investigative vocational personality type scores, interests in I activities entered the equation first, accounting for the majority of variance for both boys and girls (74.3% and 77.9%, respectively). For Artistic vocational personality type scores, for boys, the majority of variance was accounted for by interests in A activities (68.7%), and for girls, by interests in A occupations (76.5%). For Social vocational personality type scores, for boys, the majority of variance was accounted for by interests in S activities (81.6%), and for girls, by interests in S occupations (78.1%). For Enterprising vocational personality type scores, for both boys and girls, interests in E occupations entered the equation first (accounting for 75.3% and 75.1% of the variance, respectively); and for Conventional vocational personality type scores, for both boys and girls, interests in C occupations entered the equation first (accounting for 71.5% and 77.6% of the variance, respectively). Self- estimated abilities and self-estimated competencies only added incrementally (from 3% to 18%) to the prediction of any of the vocational personality type scores for boys and girls.
Intercorrelations among the predictor variables ranged from .28 to .76 for boys and from .30 to .71 for girls. Correlations between the predictor and predicted variables ranged from .57 to .86 for boys, and from .70 to .87 for girls. In each case, the predictor variables correlated more highly with the predicted variables than with each other, thus giving evidence of only moderate multicollinearity in each of the regression models (Ho Yu, 2006). Results of the regression analyses are reported in Tables 2 and 3. The correlation matrixes underlying each of the models are available from the first author.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this research was to test the effects of circumscription on young adolescents’ developing vocational personalities, and to ascertain the relative strength of the factors hypothesized by Holland to contribute to vocational personality development. There were no ethnic differences in either vocational personalities or the predictors of vocational personalities among African American, Asian American, and Native American students. There were gender differences in vocational personality types (with boys expressing more Realistic and Investigative types, and girls expressing more Artistic types), and in the predictors of these types (with boys having greater Realistic self-estimated abilities, Realistic and Investigative self-estimated competencies, interests in Realistic and Investigative occupations, and interests in Realistic activities; and girls having greater Social self- estimated abilities, Artistic self-estimated competencies, interests in Artistic occupations, and interests in Artistic and Enterprising activities). Similar to an earlier study (Oosterveld, 1994), our results indicate that various predictors are more strongly associated with some personality type scores and more weakly associated with others. In this current study, only interests in occupations and interests in activities strongly predicted the various personality types, with self-estimated abilities and self- estimated competencies being very weak predictors. Moreover, the results of this current study showed gender differences in the relationship of interests to Holland vocational personalities. Realistic vocational personalities tended to be associated primarily with interests in Realistic occupations for both boys and girls. Investigative personalities tended to be associated primarily with interests in Investigative activities for both boys and girls. The traditionally female vocational personality types (Artistic and Social) tended to be primarily associated with interests in Social and Artistic occupations for girls and interests in Social and Artistic activities for boys. The traditionally gender-neutral vocational personality types (Enterprising and Conventional) tended to be primarily associated with interests in Enterprising and Conventional occupations for both boys and girls (see Figure 1).
These results support both Gottfredson’s and Holland’s theories for inner-city adolescents; interests in occupations and activities predicted vocational personality types. However, the interests themselves also were circumscribed (as were the vocational personality types with which they were associated). This suggests that inner-city adolescents have similar career development needs as adolescents of other demographic groups in regard to reversing the effects of gender-role socialization on their developing vocational personalities. The results of this study also suggest that inner- city young people have some gender differences in the way that their vocational personalities are developed, and thus school counselors should design counseling strategies that are specifically tailored to the vocational development needs of these young men and women.
SUGGESTIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS
Based on the findings of this research, we suggest that counselors guide young people to explore a broad range of same- gender, cross-gender, and gender-neutral careers. This type of exploration can facilitate students in making choices that are based on personal interests rather than on gender-based, socially prescribed roles. In order to accomplish this, as suggested by this research, counselors should help both boys and girls focus on exploring Realistic, Enterprising, and Conventional occupations, and help girls focus on exploring Social and Artistic occupations (because interests in occupations were most predictive of the formation of these types of vocational personalities for these groups). Counselors also should help both boys and girls engage in Investigative activities, and help boys engage in Social and Artistic activities (because interests in activities were most predictive for these types of vocational personalities for these groups).
Occupational Exploration
To assist in exploring occupations, we suggest that school counselors use a five-step process. For the first step, counselors should help students identify occupations according to the Holland themes they are exploring. Then counselors should direct students to use Web sites and online video resources in order to obtain the most recent occupational information and career trends (Van Horn & Myrick, 2001). Next, counselors should teach students to consider career options by using their imagination, creativity, and reflection. This process has been related to a more advanced vocational identity among young people (Munson & Widmer, 1997).
Then, we suggest that counselors provide students with direct contact with people who work in various fields for the purpose of role modeling. Research has shown that when young people are exposed to positive career role modeling, they perceive greater career support and develop a stronger vocational identity along with greater certainty that they can exercise choice regarding their own career paths (Nauta & Kokaly, 2001). Finally, counselors should discuss both challenges and supports to working in cross-gender occupations. Counselor-guided discussions concerning gender-based career challenges have been shown to increase interests in cross- gender occupations among multi-ethnic middle school adolescents (Turner & Lapan, 2005).
For the first step in this process, school counselors can help students identify several occupations they would be most interested in exploring. This can be accomplished by showing students how to use Holland’s (1994a) Occupations Finder, which has comprehensive lists of more than 1,300 occupations that are categorized by vocational personality types (categories include the primary type and two moderating types). The Occupations Finder is a reference that can be purchased from Psychological Assessment Resources at www.self-directed-search. com. Another easily accessible resource that lists occupations by Holland theme is O*NET, published by the U.S. Department of Labor. This resource is free and can be found at online.onetcenter. org/find/under "O*NET Descriptor: Interests."
For the second step, school counselors should teach students to gather information about the jobs they have chosen through using both computerbased and video-based exploration activities. For example, students could examine information from the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Exploring Career Information Web site (www.bls.gov/k12/ index. htm). Through this Web site, students are given an overview of various occupations, information about how to prepare for these occupations (e.g., 2-year versus 4-year degrees), information about the expected salaries for these occupations, and links to other occupations similar to those that they are exploring.
Students also could examine the information found on the U.S. General Services Administration’s Career Voyages Web site (www.careervoyages. gov/). Through this site, young people learn the tasks that are associated with specific occupations, and the knowledge, skills, abilities, interests, and working styles that are most sought after by employers in these occupations. Students also can view videos that help them explore how specific occupations benefit society, and how these occupations fit into the broader contexts that make up the world of work: For example, how does glass manufacturing fit into construction, automotive repair, medicine, and so forth? In addition, we recommend the 196 career videos and 450 career cluster videos that can be streamed from the National Labor Exchange’s Web site (www.jobcentral.com/youthcareers.asp). These videos are also free. They are approximately 5 minutes long, and they present students with interesting reviews and pictorial representations of people at work.
For the third step, school counselors can help students use imagination, creativity, and reflection in their exploration by teaching them to envision themselves working at various jobs. This can be done through acting out counselor-written role plays. Students can construct visual representations of work using computer animation programs, modeling clay, sand trays and figures, or other artistic mediums. Students also can imagine "what if" by writing descriptions of what it would be like for them to be employed in specific occupations.
For the fourth step, school counselors can help students explore identified occupations by giving them opportunities to interact with role models. This can be accomplished by arranging for class speakers to share about their own work experiences. We suggest including speakers who work in gendernontraditional occupations, such as men who work as elementary school teachers or women who work as engineers. Additionally, counselors can take students and their parents to job fairs or places of employment to talk to employers about their expectations for employees. Including parents in this type of activity can be a powerful vocational support as research has shown that parents have a significant influence on the direction of young people’s career development (Alliman-Brissett, Turner, & Skovholt, 2004).
For the fifth step, school counselors can discuss with students how they perceive that members of their own gender overcome barriers to gain entry into and work in cross-gender occupations. Issues can be discussed such as being ridiculed by peers; not being encouraged to pursue cross-gender occupations by parents, teachers, or other adults; encountering discrimination related to academic preparation or work entry; work and family; and mentoring. Students also can be instructed on how to find and use resources for people who work in nontraditional occupations. There are many professional associations dedicated to providing support and training for cross-gender work, such as MenTeach and the Association for Women in Mathematics.
Guided Activities
To help boys engage in Artistic activities, school counselors can provide opportunities for them to draw, paint, play music, or act. As they participate in these activities, counselors can discuss with them what they believe it would be like to work in occupations in which they would regularly do Artistictype work tasks. To help boys explore Social activities, counselors can provide opportunities for them to help prepare lessons for school or community classes or help them learn peer counseling skills. As they engage in these activities, counselors can ask them to imagine themselves doing this type of work as their profession. Counselors can help young men experience both Artistic and Social activities as appropriate masculine pursuits by helping them relate the activities to other areas in which they are interested (e.g., sports, debate). Finally, we suggest that both boys and girls be intentionally engaged in Investigative activities. Opportunities to engage young people in math and science activities, for example, could be provided through participation in university-based math camps, community-sponsored math and science events, visits to city-sponsored science museums, or practice activities such as creating math and science puzzles during school break-time. Helping young men and women consider math and science as an integral part of their vocational personality can decrease their math anxiety and give them confidence to pursue Investigative careers as well as to use math in their everyday lives (Turner, Steward, & Lapan, 2004). As demonstrated by the results of this current study, both boys and girls are more likely to develop Investigative personality characteristics by engaging in Investigative activities.
Assisting inner-city young people to broadly employ occupational exploration as well as to participate in activities related to Holland vocational personality types can help provide them with strategies to make intentional choices as they prepare for their lives and their careers. By counseling young people to explore occupations and activities related to samegender, cross-gender, and gender-neutral pursuits, they may be helped to develop vocational personalities that are more congruent with their innate talents, capabilities, and interests, and less prescribed by gender-role expectations.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study relied on self-report, and thus it is subject to the same social influence effects as other selfreport studies. Additionally, although there was evidence that the variables in this study were not multicollinear, correlations between some dependent variables were moderately high, thus potentiating an overfit of the models to the data. Although multiple regression is robust to some possible data redundancy, the results of this study should be interpreted with caution. Moreover, although Gottfredson’s theory describes a developmental process of circumscription, this current research was conducted using point-in-time data. Thus, interpretation of these results can only highlight the potential influences of circumscription on middle school adolescents’ vocational personality development.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
We suggest that subsequent research focus on the most effective methods of occupational exploration and activity engagement among inner-city adolescents. Future research should focus on other personality variables that predict young people’s vocational personalities. Future research also should focus on correspondence between vocational personality development and students’ educational, vocational, and other life choices. Finally, longitudinal research should be conducted that examines the effects of circumscription over time in order to establish effective career development interventions for use at various developmental levels.
CONCLUSION
Holland’s theory of vocational personalities and work environments describes how young people develop specific values, attitudes, and like and dislikes, through knowledge of their own abilities, the building of competencies based on those abilities, and the development of interests in specific activities and occupations. Circumscription and Compromise Theory describes how this process is hampered through young people’s perceptions of what is acceptable for men and women in our society. This study provided partial support for Holland’s theory in that the primary predictors of personality development were interests in activities and occupations, with abilities and competencies adding very little variance to the prediction equations. The study provided support for Gottfredson’s theory in that the effects of circumscription were evident as participants’ interests and measured vocational personalities followed expected gender-based patterns. The results of this study suggest that specific interventions addressing circumscription should be used in order to facilitate optimal career development among inner-city adolescents.
Finding ways to assist inner-city young people to participate in meaningful career development activities may help ameliorate some of the challenges they face as they seek to prepare for and embark upon their life’s work.
People who make vocational, social, and leisure choices that are congruent with their Holland vocational personality types experience greater life satisfaction than do people who make choices that are less congruent.
There were no ethnic differences in either vocational personalities or the predictors of vocational personalities among African American, Asian American, and Native American students.
The traditionally female vocational personality types (Artistic and Social) tended to be primarily associated with interests in Social and Artistic occupations for girls and interests in Social and Artistic activities for boys.
The results of this study suggest that specific interventions addressing circumscription should be used in order to facilitate optimal career development among inner-city adolescents.
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Sherri L. Turner, Ph.D., is an associate professor in Counseling and Student Personnel Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. E-mail: turne047@umn.edu
Julia L.Conkel, Michael Starkey, and Rachel Landgraf are with the University of Minnesota.
Richard T. Lapan, Ph.D., is a professor with the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Jason J. Siewert is with the University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Allison Reich and Michelle J. Trotter are with the University of Minnesota.
Eric R. Neumaier is with the University of Wisconsin.
Ju-Ping Huang is with the University of Minnesota.
Copyright American Counseling Association Jun 2008
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