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Effects of Computer-Based Cognitive Mapping on Reading Comprehension for Students With Emotional Behavior Disorders

Posted on: Sunday, 31 July 2005, 03:01 CDT

Three students with behavior disorders who exhibited difficulty with reading in content area courses learned to use a computer program to create cognitive maps of the reading material required for class. Using a modified multiple-probe design across behaviors or stimulus sets, replicated across students, allowed for the evaluation of student performance on written and oral quizzes covering content area information. All students improved reading comprehension of content material with this intervention, and were able to read their textbooks independent of teacher assistance or tutelage. These findings are significant because students who previously struggled with learning class material from text-based presentation can successfully accomplish these tasks given cognitive mapping reading strategy and access to a computer to create the cognitive maps.

Reading comprehension is an integral skill for both working and participating in society. Being able to read extends beyond the decoding of words, and to be truly literate, one must be able to contextually organize and understand the relationships between the symbolic text on the page and the world at large (Hirsch, 1987). Unfortunately, 47% of the adult population in the United States has only the most basic literacy skills; this fact is a compelling reason for educators to find innovative ways for increasing reading skills amongst adults (Kirsch, Jungeblut, Jenkins, & Kolstad, 1993). Difficulty in learning to read begins early in life and can cause serious problems for students in all subject areas. Since students with weak reading skills spend less time reading, they subsequently have less knowledge and vocabulary than their peers with stronger reading skills (Cunningham &. Stanovich, 1998). Reading problems can therefore represent a serious obstacle to school success (Williams, Reese, Campbell, Mazzeo, & Phillips, 1995). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching students to create concept maps to assist with independent reading comprehension and learning facts related to history.

It is apparent that much of the general education curriculum relies on students being able to read and comprehend text independent of classroom instruction. Therefore, for students with disabilities to have access to the general education curriculum, strategies and tools will be needed to help them compensate for deficits in reading. One such electronic tool that has potential for helping poor readers with comprehension difficulties to organize their work is cognitive-mapping software. While, Ausubel (1963) performed the initial work on paper and pencil cognitive mapping, Strum and Rankin-Erickson (2002) provide a contemporary definition: "an instructional strategy used to categorize information into a graphic form, creating a visual representation of the text" (p. 125). Software such as Inspiration (Inspiration Software Inc., 2000) can provide assistance to students in creating these graphic models.

For secondary students whose reading problems have proven to be durable and long lasting, additional instructional strategies are needed to assist them in learning the content in a variety of academic subjects. For example, given a chapter in a textbook, students must be able to read and to organize the information in a way that will allow them to recall what they have read. Cognitive mapping is one strategy that has proven effective as an aid to help students organize and understand textual information (Barenholtz & Pinchas, 1992). While cognitive mapping can be accomplished using traditional pencil and paper templates, computer software may provide a more engaging and effective means for students to use concept maps. Research indicates that students may respond better to instruction using a computer than to more traditional types of instruction (Higgins &. Boone, 1990; Higgins, Boone, &Lovit, 1996; Lin, Podell, & Tournalci-Rein, 1994). This study was designed to evaluate the pairing of cognitive mapping and computer software on the reading comprehension of students with behavior disorders who struggle with reading comprehension.

Where the breadth of published research on reading comprehension intervention strategies for students with learning disabilities is expansive, a literature search revealed a dearth of published studies about students with emotional behavior disorders and reading comprehension. Several reading comprehension strategies similar to cognitive mapping have been employed with students with disabilities, however. Story mapping (Vallecorsa & deBettencourt, 1997), text structure strategies (Bakken, Mastropieri, &. Scruggs, 1997), summarization (Malone & Mastropieri, 1992), and graphic organizers (Strum & Rankin-Erickson, 2002) have all been successfully used with students with mild disabilities. Each of these strategies is designed to assist the student with organizing the textual material in a manner that will facilitate understanding and recall of the information read. A notable absence in the literature exists for using technology as a tool to facilitate the use of graphic organizers or concept maps.

Vallecorsa and deBettencourt (1997) used story-mapping procedures with three students with learning disabilities to increase recall of text. As the intervention progressed, students gradually moved toward independent use of the story maps to illustrate the relationship between the story elements, and they improved their recall of the concepts in the stories. Malone and Mastropieri (1992) measured the effects of another reading comprehension strategy developed to assist struggling readers with organizing and recalling complex text material. Looking at the reading comprehension levels of 45 students with learning disabilities, they compared the use of a summarization strategy, as well as a summarization strategy accompanied by self-monitoring, to traditional reading instruction. The students who were taught the summarization strategy performed statistically higher on all dependent measures, and the self- monitoring group demonstrated higher transfer scores.

Several studies have identified concept mapping, also described as semantic mapping, or, as it is referred to in this study, cognitive mapping, as a way of improving the reading comprehension of poor readers. For example, Scanlon, Duran, Reyes, and Gallego (1992) demonstrated the potential of interactive semantic mapping with students who had learning disabilities. Students who worked collaboratively to develop semantic maps scored better on measures of recall and comprehension of content area concepts than did students who received other instruction.

Boyle (1996) evaluated the effects of using a cognitive mapping strategy on the literal and the inferential reading comprehension of narrative passages by 30 middle school students diagnosed either with a learning disability or a mild intellectual disability. Based on the post intervention scores covering the selected reading material, the students who learned to use the cognitive mapping strategy increased both their literal (by a mean of 25 % when compared to pretests) and their inferential comprehension (by a mean of 30% when compared to pretests).

Expanding on this work, Boyle and Weishaar (1997) assessed the effectiveness of cognitive mapping on the reading comprehension of 39 high school students with mild disabilities. Comparing effects of student-generated maps to expert-generated and no-mapping conditions, the researchers reported that students could independently create maps to assist themselves with independent reading activities and that those students who used maps performed significantly better on measures of literal comprehension than students who did not. Furthermore, students who created their own maps rather than using the templates supplied by the teacher, performed better on measures of inferential comprehension. This independence is a powerful skill when considering placement of students in a general education setting where less support is typically available.

Each of these studies indicated that cognitive mapping was an effective tool for increasing reading comprehension of students with mild disabilities. Cognitive mapping is a strategy that has proven effective, regardless of the differences in content or use of supplemental mnemonics. Computer based instruction coupled with cognitive mapping may provide another powerful strategy for improving the reading comprehension of students with mild disabilities and allow these students to engage in a mainstream curriculum that relies heavily on independent reading. Therefore, evaluation of the effects of cognitive mapping software on the reading comprehension of students with mild disabilities would expand the corpus of literature in reading comprehension, cognitive mapping, computer based instruction, and on the education of students with behavior disorders.

METHOD

Participants/Setting

Three 15-year-old freshmen, two boys and one girl, from an affluent suburban high school participated in this study. Each student was identified by the school syst\em as having an emotional behavioral disorder (EBD), and was served in a selfcontained classroom for students needing behavioral supports to meet their academic goals. These students had a history of significant learning difficulties due to reading problems and behavioral issues when assigned independent content area work. Subsequently they were often unable to participate in general curriculum. The students in this study were selected based on their enrollment in a technical-level world history class taught in their self-contained classroom. At the time the study began, there were the four students enrolled in the course and one was subsequently removed to an alternative school environment for an unrelated offense. All of these students had previous experience using the computer for basic tasks like word processing but had no experience with cognitive mapping.

Table 1.

Student test scores

Student scores on IQ tests (Cognitive Abilities Tesf-CogAT and the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children-WlSC-lll) ranged from a full-scale score of 90 to 103 with a mean score for all three students being 97.6 and the median being 100 (see Table 1 for more detail). Reading comprehension scores on the WIAT ranged from 85 to 93, with a mode of 93 and a mean of 90. Each student demonstrated significant academic difficulties with content area material. Their extended history of difficulty in reading and failing to meet academic standards meant that they were not participating in the curriculum with their peers; rather these students required extensive supports outside of the mainstream general education classroom.

According to teacher reports and disciplinary records, these students exhibited difficulty working independently and sometimes had problems reading required content area material. Historically, when assigned independent work, these students were often off-task and such work often led to more serious behavioral outbursts in an avoidance effort. Due these behavioral issues, the students primarily relied on teacher-led direct instruction within the self- contained environment for learning because independent work, such as silent reading, was ineffective for them to learn new information. The students rarely read content material independently in an effort to glean content knowledge as problem behavioral was generally associated with such tasks. The ineffectiveness of independent reading was further evidenced through continual failure when placed in general education settings where teachers relied on students to gain content information through silent reading.

In their special education program, they were allowed to participate in the general education curriculum (while staying in their self-contained classroom) and receive general education credit applicable toward a general education diploma. Their failures in this curriculum did not reflect an inability to comprehend concepts explained by the teacher; rather, their failure resulted primarily from their difficulty understanding concepts they had to read independently in their general education textbooks. This problem was particularly evident for content area classes (e.g., social studies) that relied heavily on text-driven instruction. Despite these difficulties, each student was pursuing a general education diploma and was required to take the corresponding course loads.

Like many students with EBD, these students exhibited behavior that could be classified as belligerent or withdrawn. Often their behavior patterns were erratic, with the students being easily angered or extremely emotional in normal situations. However, as data collection took take place from the middle to the end of the school year, their behavior was generally not problematic within the self-contained classroom. This was primarily believed to be a result of the classroom behavior management system having a positive effect rather than being a result of the reading intervention. Little variability was experienced within the data due to major behavioral outbursts.

Materials

All materials used within the study were already accessible to teachers within the school district. Materials were not brought into the classroom to be part of the study. For cognitive mapping, students used the computer program, Inspiration. The school system where the study took place owned a site license for the software; thus, all teachers in the county had access to the program. The students used computers located in their classroom to create concept maps covering the material they read.

Each student followed the general education curriculum, which required the use of a specific text. The text was broken down into units and chapters, which the school system required the teacher teach in order for students to receive general education credit. The tests used to measure student progress were supplements from the same textbook publisher. The researcher used these tests and the text to design probes that were used to measure student knowledge of key concepts.

Table 2.

Evaluation Measures for the Dependent Variable

Dependent Variable

Twenty key concepts were identified for each chapter based on the format of the textbook and the publisher's prescribed curriculum. From these, two dependent variables were used to monitor student acquisition of the key concepts, make instructional decisions, and evaluate the efficacy of the intervention (see Table 2). The first dependent variable was the percentage of correct responses on the chapter tests. The students would receive a pretest of the chapter test before beginning intervention and posttest after they completed reading the chapter. The second dependent variable was the percentage of correct responses on chapter quizzes that students took each day after reading. These quizzes covered all 20 key concepts for the entire chapter, some of which the student may not have had the opportunity to read. This variable functioned as a formative measure to gauge student progress as he or she advanced toward criterion.

Within the chapter quizzes, questions were constructed to allow monitoring of student progress on the entire chapter as well as to monitor student acquisition of what they had already read. For example, a chapter quiz may have had 14 questions, after the student had read the first four pages of the chapter, he or she may have encountered only the material that would allow an answer for two or three of the questions. The questions that covered material the student would have read, functioned as section quizzes to allow the teacher to make instructional decisions about when to allow students to move to the next section of text. Ultimately, this dependent variable paralleled the sort of questions and content area knowledge the students were required to comprehend in a general education world history course. The section quizzes were not a separate instrument, rather, they were a portion of the questions contained within the chapter quiz.

Independent Variable

The independent variable was the student's use and design of cognitive maps on the computer while reading the text. Students learned to use the Inspiration software to map text by watching a demonstration of the software and then through guided practice. The teacher modeled how to create maps and then tutored the students through the process. Once they had practiced using the software and learned how to create a one-page map including all of the pertinent information, they were judged to be proficient at creating cognitive maps.

Design

A modified multiple-probe design across behaviors was used to establish experimental control (Cooper, Heron, &Heward, 1987; Tawney &. Cast, 1984). In this study, the behaviors were the response of three students to three different chapters in a text. Wanting to control for testing threats, the study was planned so that pre- intervention probes were limited to just prior to introduction of intervention for the specific chapter. This contrasted with common usage of multiple-probe designs where all behaviors (settings or participants) probed as intervention, are introduced on each subsequent behavior. Additionally, this reduced the overall amount of time that students spent engaged in testing, allowing more focus on their academic instruction. To bolster the design, the intervention was replicated across three participants. By selecting a multipleprobe across behaviors rather than across participants, each student was allowed to work at his/her own pace without regard to the progress of other participants.

PROCEDURES

Baseline procedures. At the beginning of each chapter, baseline data in the form of the chapter tests were taken over the key concepts for that chapter to allow the student to demonstrate any knowledge of the material before reading the chapter. The chapter test was administered before the student began reading the chapter and again after the student had completed the entire chapter. After reading each day, students took chapter quizzes that measured the same material as the chapter tests. These were administered orally to each student until the student established a stable or declining trend in correct responding over at least three sessions indicating that the student was not gaining knowledge without intervention.

Intervention procedures. Once these pre-intervention measures were taken, students read a portion of the chapter every session. The teacher determined length of text the students read each day based on prior knowledge of reasonable expectations for each student to read and map in a 20-minute session. The length of the text varied from two to five pages including pictures, maps, and figures. The room layout allowed each student to work independently and without interference from other people. The students had only 20 minutes to complete their reading and mapping. If they did not finish in the allotted time, the teacher stopped the students and \moved the class to the next part of the day's lesson. The teacher was available to answer student questions or concerns during the entire period, but did not interfere or answer content questions in order to ensure the students were learning from the reading and mapping process.

As students read they created concept maps using the software. While the concept maps were not graded, students complied with the teacher directions. The maps were intended solely for the use of the student as a comprehension aid. Students created new maps each day and did not refer back to previously-created maps because this study was designed to evaluate effects of the cognitive map design process only.

When the student completed his or her reading, or at conclusion of a 20-minute reading segment (whichever came first), the student took chapter quizzes. The teacher and student would leave the room to keep other students from hearing the day's questions. All 20 key concepts were probed daily in the chapter quizzes, and the student was able to move to the next reading section if he or she correctly answered 80% of the questions concerning material they had already read (i.e., the questions on the section quiz). If the student did not respond correctly to at least 80% of the questions covering material they had already read, the student had to reread that section of material the following day and again try to answer at least 80% of the questions correctly for the material they read.

To guard against inadvertently teaching the students during the chapter quizzes, the teacher did not give answers to individual questions or tell the students whether or not their responses were correct. The teacher told the students the percentage correct for the chapter quiz and the percentage correct for the section quiz.

Once the participants had read the entire chapter and could answer 80% of the chapter quiz questions correctly, they took the corresponding chapter test. The students took the chapter test at least three times until their data stabilized or moved in an upward trend over the mastery level. Each test had different types of questions ranging from multiple-choice to placing events in chronological order. The test also consisted of an essay portion; to evaluate this portion of the test, the teacher used the concept guide from the publishers to determine point values for student responses. Upon demonstration of mastery on the Chapter Test, students began the next chapter of reading.

Reliability

Two methods of reliability were used in this study. Procedural reliability data were taken to ensure fidelity of implementation. Inter-rater reliability data were gathered to monitor consistency in data collection on the dependent measures. The paraprofessional assigned to the classroom collected both reliability measures.

Procedural reliability. Procedural reliability data were gathered based on a set of seven yes/no questions that outlined the procedural steps for the intervention and probes. These questions allowed monitoring of the consistency of the environment and the teacher actions within the context of the study. A paraprofessional was trained in evaluating the environment and implementation procedures and collected the data for 20% of all sessions evenly dispersed across participants. The total number of steps followed was divided by the total number of procedural steps and multiplied by 100. One hundred percent of the procedural reliability steps were followed in the sessions in which data were collected.

Inter-rater reliability. All chapter tests were scored using the key provided by the textbook publisher from which the tests were taken. This measure ensured consistency across tests and students. After the teacher converted student scores to percentages, the paraprofessional independently converted student scores to check for any mathematical errors. These two steps helped to guard against observer drift and accidental errors in grading. A total of four discrepancies occurred and in each of these cases, and the discrepancies were resolved after the teacher and paraprofessional reviewed their grading and calculations.

RESULTS

Figures 1, 2, and 3 show that the students acquired the target information following the introduction of the intervention. The Figures each show two measures on each tier of the graphs. One of these measures represents the percentage correct response on the chapter quizzes. This measure alone does not adequately represent student progress because this is a measure of student knowledge for all concepts in that chapter, some of which they had not yet read. However, these data move in a slow upward trend that represents a line of acquisition as the students were exposed to more of the material. The second measure on the graph depicts student performance on section quizzes (i.e., information students had read up until that point). Greater shifts in level were evident for these data as the students read more of the material in the text. Thus, on any given day during intervention, each student had two data points. One data point represented the percentage of questions he or she answered total and the other data point represented the percentage of the questions the student answered correctly for the material they read. This last data point was the point used to determine when the student progressed to the next section of text.

As evidenced in the Figures, all students had low levels of knowledge of the content prior to intervention. Jacob scored below 14% on all baseline administrations of chapter tests, Nira scored 7%, 8%, and 33%; Phil scored 8%, 7%, 41%. On the oral chapter quizzes given prior to intervention, all students scored consistently below 15% correct. These data indicate the students had very little prior knowledge of the material before beginning the intervention. After introduction of the intervention, each student's data began to move in an upward trend toward criterion with no student needing more than 10 days to master the material for any chapter. Traditional classroom activities that preceded this study indicated that this same group of students did not perform well on chapter tests over similar content they read without the assistance of the electronic cognitive mapping tool.

Figure 1. Target information for Jacob following the introduction of the intervention.

Figure 2. Target information for Nira following the introduction of the intervention.

For all students, on all chapters, the data showed an increase in level and an upward moving trend indicating that the students were acquiring the information and successfully responding to questions about the information they had been reading. Ultimately, each student successfully scored above 75% correct on all chapter tests.

DISCUSSION

The students all benefited from the computer-based, cognitive- mapping strategy. They learned the assigned material, and they were able to do this while working on the material independently. The results of this study support two primary conclusions. First, students with behavior disorders who previously had difficulty successfully engaging in independent learning activities can use cognitive mapping to improve the retention of the information they read. This broadens the existing literature base supporting the use of cognitive maps with students with disabilities (Boyle &. Weishaar, 1997) to include a more diverse range of students. second, the power of computer-based, cognitive-mapping software offers a viable aid for students to create cognitive maps. For practitioners, these results mean that they can teach students how to create cognitive maps and allow students more independence in learning content-area material from texts.

In addition, the teacher reported that the computer-based program was well received by the students because of built-in tools such as spell checker and the ability to control other features such as graphics, font size, and typeface. Further, the students enjoyed using the software and throughout the study would express their interest in the program. Students frequently told the teacher that they liked using the computer to help them read, and that the program helped them to identify important information in the reading. This outcome can have positive effects on some students who generally are not motivated to engage in academic work.

Figure 3. Target information for Phil following the introduction of the intervention.

Throughout the study, the behavior of the students while working independently using the concept-mapping software sharply contrasted with their classroom behavior before introduction of the software. Prior to implementation of the intervention, the students were rarely assigned tasks involving reading content material in an effort to gain knowledge because such assignments were associated with off-task behavior. Many students had office referrals for aberrant behavior exhibited during independent work when previously assigned. However, within the intervention phase the students worked independently. Although the teacher was in close enough proximity to the students to answer questions if they arose, the teacher did not provide corrective feedback for on- or off-task behavior. Unexpectedly, the teacher did not have to remind each student that it was time to work independently nor did the teacher have to remind students where they had previously stopped mapping the text. These behaviors were significantly different from the continual close supervision, daily guided lessons, and monitoring the teacher previously provided.

Prior to intervention, the teacher reported that students were dependent on teacher-led instruction which was used primarily to avoid off-task behavior students exhibited when they worked independently. Although their achievement data showed average reading comprehension ability, their reading comprehension of content material was sign\ificantly impaired within a classroom setting. Prior to this study, these students received instruction that combined teacher-guided notes, teacher-guided reading of content material, teacher-guided review sessions, and assessments that the teacher read aloud. The students, recognizing their new independence made requests to use the software to map the novels they read in language arts. They no longer wanted to rely on the teacher guiding them through the reading, rather they had the skills to read and comprehend this material for themselves and they were motivated to apply these skills.

Limitations, This study has limitations that restrict the generalizability of the results. While all of the students had previously demonstrated difficulty learning material via independent reading, no comparative measure was taken during this study to see if students would acquire this content without the cognitive mapping strategy. Although within the context of this study, due to teacher reports and previous consistent failure with independent reading assignments, such results were unlikely without the use of the software for these students. Conclusions that can be drawn from the study are thus limited. It can only be said that the use of the concept-mapping software in conjunction with reading was successful for students with EBD, with the next logical step being aimed at research enabling comparative conclusions. This limitation does not take into account the history of failure these students had experienced in a course that demanded significant amounts of reading. However, future research may employ a comparative research design with a larger sample size of students to evaluate the relative effectiveness of cognitive mapping via computer, versus standard instruction and independent reading. Additionally, no maintenance probes were conducted to evaluate long or longer-term retention of information. Future research in this area can easily overcome this limitation by scheduling maintenance probes throughout the study.

Other factors concerning the feasibility of replication of this study depend on classroom configurations, for example, the small class size. This type of instruction might be more difficult to use in a classroom with more students and more restricted computer access. Time constraints and the large amount of individual time required on the computer will require additional computer workstations.

Future replications of this study may consider including consistent corrective feedback during probe sessions. While this may confound the effects of the intervention, it would reflect a more typical instructional scenario. The students in this study complained of frustration because they were not told if their answers to probe questions were right or wrong. A final point to consider for future research might focus around some interaction between the teacher and the student in regard to the content of their cognitive map. Some structured feedback in this area may help students to create more useful maps by identifying more accurately the appropriate material to include in the map.

Implications. The implications of the study include inferences that relate to classroom management in both special and general education. Although replication may be an issue in a classroom with more students and less computer access, the data demonstrate that students with EBD who have difficulty with independent tasks such as reading may be able to participate in such tasks with the aid of conceptmapping software. While many students may benefit from the type of instruction outlined in this study, as it imparts a learning tool that all can use, it is especially important when making placement decisions for students with EBD. If the classroom management can be structured in such a way as to provide access of this type to students who have difficulty working independently, then more options may be available along the continuum of placements. Although such students need close monitoring and behavior management, the use of such an intervention seems to diminish the need for continuous teacher-led instruction typically associated with more restrictive placements. Further, the study results seem to indicate that as the students were made aware of their ability to work independently, and as the teacher came to expect such independent work, the students responded well. Such themes have implications when dealing with students with EBD across settings.

CONCLUSION

The concept-mapping software allowed the students to independently read material and learn content information for their world history class. The technology allowed greater autonomy for these students and could provide them with the assistance they need to succeed with the academic material. By teaching students to use a software program like Inspiration, a teacher provides students with the tools to learn independently. The students could adapt this strategy for use in general education coursework and in other areas of their lives. By providing students with learning tools that do not require teacher monitoring, educators place more responsibility on the individual learner. This responsibility is what is expected in the general education setting. If one goal of special education is to act as an intensive instructional vehicle to assist students with re-entering the general education classroom, teachers need to supply students with strategies and tools to succeed in that setting.

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Barenholtz, H. &. Pinchas, T. (1992). A comprehensive use of concept mapping in design instruction and assessment. Research in Science & Technological Education, W1 37-51.

Boyle, J. R. (1996). The effects of a cognitive mapping strategy on the literal and inferential comprehension of students with mild disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 19, 86-98.

Boyle, J. R. & Weishaar, M. (1997). The effects of expert- generated versus student-generated cognitive organizers on the reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 12, 228-235.

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Kirsch, I. S., Jungeblut, A., Jenkins, L, & Kolstad, A. (1993, September). Adult literacy in America: A first look at the results of the national adult literacy survey (Vol. 17). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

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Malone, L. D. & Mastropieri, M. A. (1992). Reading comprehension instruction: summarization and selfmonitoring training for students with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 59, 270-278.

Scanlon, D. J., Duran, G. Z., Reyes, E. I. & Gallego, M. A. (1992). Interactive semantic mapping: An interactive approach to enhancing LD students' content area comprehension. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 7, 142-146.

Strum, J. M. & Rankin-Erickson, J. L. (2002). Effects of handdrawn and computer-generated concept mapping on the expository writing of middle school students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 17, 124-139.

Tawney J. W & Cast, D. L. (1984). Single Subject Research In Special Education, Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing.

Vallecorsa, A. L. & deBettencourt, L. U. (1997). Using mapping procedure to teach reading and writing skills to middle grade students with leaning disabilities. Education and Treatment of Children, 20, 173-188.

Williams, E L., Reese,C. M., Campbell, J.R., Mazzeo, J., & Phillips, G.W (1995). NAEP 1994 reading: A fiist look. (rev. ed. Vol. 1995 O-402-235). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

TRACY L. BLANKENSHIP

KEVIN M. AYRES

JOHN LANGONE

The University of Georgia

Tracy Blankenship is a doctoral student at the University of Georgia in the Special Education Department. Kevin Ayres is a doctoral student at the University of Georgia in the Special Education Department. John Langone is Professor and Department Head of the Special Education Department at the University of Georgia. Special thanks are extended to the Gwinnett County Public School System.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to John Langone, University of Georgia, Special Education Department, Aderhold Hall, Athens, Georgia, 30602. Email to: jlangone@uga.edu.

Copyright Journal of Special Education Technology Spring 2005

Source: Journal of Special Education Technology

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