Including Students With Disabilities in a Foreign Language Class

By Duvall, Emily D

“How am I going to teach these students a second language when they have so many difficulties with their first language?”

Is that your first thought when you see that your new class roster includes students with disabilities? Student diversity and inclusion presents a unique set of challenges to foreign language teachers. In fact, it has long been recognized that children with learning disabilities, especially those whose difficulties are language-based, will be challenged by foreign language education (Barr, 1993; Landmark College, 1997; Levine, 1990; Moore, 1995; Schneider, 1996; Schwarz, 1997, 1999; Scott & Manglitz, 2000). Luckily, national foreign language standards support a communicative language approach to teaching and developing a rich, multidisciplinary contentbased curriculum, including the use of levels of proficiency rather than years of “seat time” and by employing more authentic methods of assessment. These standards have moved foreign language education towards increased access for all (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, 2001). Adding another layer of access and applying special education principles of instruction such as accommodations and modifications, equally benefits students with and without disabilities.

How Do I Get There From Here?

“Access to the general curriculum” doesn’t just mean that the student is present and accounted for; it means enabling the student to make “meaningful progress in the general curriculum” [Nolet & McLaughlin, 2000, p. 50). In order to do this, we need to "level the playing field" by acknowledging and responding to a student's physical, sensory, or cognitive barriers by employing accommodations and/or modifications, and through the broader process of instructional or universal design and adaptation. Thus, while differentiation is often thought of in terms of students who are considered gifted or talented in their abilities, curricular and instructional differentiation is really about equity for all. No two students will walk into your classroom with the same tableau of mental, physical, social, cultural, or other background characteristics, but "differentiation suggests it is feasible to develop classrooms where realities of student variance can be addressed along with curricular realities." (Tomlinson, 2001, p. vi)

Classroom Accommodations and Modifications

"Adaptations" are the accommodations and modifications usually identified in a student's individualized education program (IEP). Accommodations are the services or supports provided to help a student access the subject matter (e.g., tape-recorded books), access the instruction (e.g., visual displays or study guides) and enable the demonstration of knowledge without compromising the validity of what the student knows (e.g., extra time to complete a test or assignments; Nolet & McLaughlin, 2000). "An accommodation does not change the content of the instruction nor the performance requirements," but it may change the timeline and sequencing as well as the method of instruction (Nolet & McLaughlin, p. 71).

Modifications go a step further. Accommodations change how a student learns, but modifications change what a student learns. Modifications may be as minimal as changing some of the materials- such as using the same literature but providing it at a lower reading level-or they can be as significant as having a student use a text that is several grade levels below the current placement. Modifications may change content area and performance expectations as well as sequence, timelines, and method of instruction (Nolet & McLaughlin, 2000). In the most extreme case, the student will have a more individualized curriculum and will be working on alternate, functional goals and is not expected to achieve the standard grade level general curriculum objectives.

Instructional or universal design and adaptation for curricular access describe a variety of ways for all students to access the same content, to understand the same instruction, and/or to demonstrate the same knowledge. Flexibility and redundancy is built in and goes well beyond access for only students with disabilities. "A curriculum that incorporates universal design features should do more than accommodate physical, sensory, or cognitive disabilities; it should include students with differing abilities, cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and approaches to learning" (Orkwis & McLane, 1998, p. 10). It must remain challenging to all students- it's not about teaching to the middle or "dumbing down" the curriculum. For example, handing out an advance study guide and reviewing the key concepts with everyone prior to the oral reading of a passage incorporates several accommodations that benefit everyone.

A Recipe for Success

Once you've got the theory under your belt, you need to know what tools to use. Identifying specific accommodations and modifications is based on student needs. The first phase can be described as "hunting and gathering." You may want to do this by collaborating with an indispensable ally, the special education teacher. Gather all the information you need. This includes information on your students' present level of educational functioning, any evaluations or assessments, academic reports, and so forth. Be sure to include any IEPs in your collection process and be sure to schedule time with other general education teachers who have taught your students in a languagebased subject, and pick their brains.

Next, follow a recipe for success to respond to your students' needs in your classroom: Friend and Bursuck's (2001) 7-step strategy, INCLUDE (see box, "Recipe for Success"), is a comprehensive research-based model of analysis. This model can be applied to most classrooms as well as to a wide range of special needs; each step of the process provides questions or areas to consider. Strategies such as peer-mediated instruction and alternative assessment, as well as universal design principles, complement the INCLUDE recipe.

Step 1 : Identify Classroom Environmental, Curricular, and Instructional Demands

The first step is to clearly identify what you bring to the classroom. Consider your management tools and instructional techniques, as well as the physical space itself-how you arrange your students, and what materials you use.

Classroom Organization. Is the physical setting accessible to everyone? Are your classroom rules clear-do you post them, perhaps incorporating pictures? How do you manage behavior issues? Do you have a visible system for tracking attendance, homework, and special assignments? Do you ever use rewards?

Table 1. "Hunting & Gathering" Data: A Case Study With Mary, George, and Elspeth

Grouping Students for Instruction. Do you prefer whole-class instruction? Do you use small groups? Do you, include peer tutoring?

Instructional Materials. Are all your materials written? Do you use audio or visual aids such as movies, talking books, or graphic organizers? How about computers? Do you try to make the same information available in different formats, accommodating different learning styles and the multiple intelligences?

Teaching Style. Do you lecture? Do you include music and games in your instruction? Are there cooperative activities? What about learning centers? Do you favor a multisensory approach by presenting the same material in a variety of ways? Do you try to vary your instruction to keep it fresh? What do students need to know to be able to meet your requirements? What basic skills are important? Do they need to be able to use specific cognitive or learning strategies such as notetaking? What about organizational abilities, being able to learn independently, or good social skills? Do you favor one learning style and/or intelligence over another? Do you differentiate instruction based on student need?

Evaluating Student Learning. Do you prefer pen-and-paper tests? Do assignments require a written response? Do you give dictation or spelling tests? Do you require oral reports based on a researched topic or an assigned book? Do you use journaling or videos or portfolios?

Step 2: Note Student Learning Strengths and Needs

Once you have identified what you have to offer, you need to establish your students' strengths, skills, and challenges in academics, social/emotional development, and physical development. Be sure not to guess or extrapolate; use only the information that is on hand, such as your own observations. Remember-you'll have already collected much of what you need while hunting and gathering! Table 1 provides an example of how to use "hunting and gathering" information in Step 2, by considering three fictional students with disabilities: Mary, George, and Elspeth.

Academics. What are the student's basic skill levels, cognitive and learning strategies, and other supporting skills, such as organizational skills and attendance levels? Be sure to consider whether or not a student likes schoolyou may want to check in with the student on this!

Social-Emotional Development. What behaviors or attitudes does the student demonstrate that might support learning, such as good interpersonal skills and motivation? Can you identify skills that are lacking or t\hat may interfere with learning, such as anxiety or disruptive behaviors?

Physical Development. Have you checked on matters such as vision and hearing, motor skills, neurological functioning, or other relevant medical conditions? Remember-sometimes a medical condition may nor have an impact.

Step 3: Check for Potential Areas of Student Success

For this step, you need to reflect on the instructional demands you identified in Step 1 and identify areas where students can succeed in your classroom. For example, Mary is well spoken and may do well in oral activities. George has difficulty with interpersonal skills, so he may do well if given personal responsibilities such as washing the blackboard, watering the plants, or feeding the fish. Elspeth has already taken a German class and may be able to help other students through peer-mediated instruction.

Step 4: Look for Potential Problem Areas

Next, you need to look for "mismatches," by identifying learning needs as they relate to your instructional demands. For example, Mary has difficulty reading and writing, so she may have difficulty reading your text and doing the written assignment at the end of each chapter. George hits other students and may have difficulty if he is assigned a seat at a tandem desk. Elspeth has difficulty with spoken language and may have difficulty participating in a student play or performance.

Step 5: Use Information Gathered to Brainstorm Instructional Adaptations

In Step 5, you need to find ways to eliminate or minimize the impact of the mismatches identified in Step 4. There are a variety of approaches to consider; talk with colleagues, especially your special education resource teachers, to try to hone in on the most important elements to tackle first. (see boxes, "Have You Considered. . . ?" and "Additional Resources to Explore.")

Bypass Strategies. Bypass strategies (Friend & Bursuck, 2001) support access, offer alternatives, do not eliminate the possibility of remediation, and encourage independence. For example, Elspeth could prepare a written conversation in collaboration with a peer rather than perform an oral one.

Changes to Classroom Teaching and Organization. Some routines and assignments can be slightly adapted to meet student needs. For example, students in George's class might be given the option of doing a project independently or with a peer.

Provide Intensive Instruction on Basic Skills and Learning Strategies. Mary has difficulty at the phonological and orthographic level of language. She would likely do well with some intensive phonemic and orthographic instruction. You could tutor her, or you may want to consider including extra instruction for everyone in the class.

Step 6: Decide Which Adaptations to Implement

Once you've identified a variety of possible accommodations, modifications, or adaptations, you need to decide which to implement in your classroom.

Check for Age-Appropriateness. Don't insult Mary and her Grade 8 peers with a kindergarten version of phonemic and orthographic instruction. Pitch your teaching to their level of maturity.

Implement the Easiest Solutions First. For example, giving George's class the choice to work on an assignment independently rather than as partners requires no extra effort on your part.

Don't Do Anything You're Uncomfortable With. You may want to check in with your special education colleagues to see if there is an alternative that will accomplish the same end in a way that you can support or that fits your teaching style.

Check Current Research. Be sure that the changes you want to implement are ones that are sound and based on proven results.

Step 7: Evaluate Student Progress

Once you've had a chance to implement your strategies and techniques, you need to evaluate the outcome. Take the time to critically assess the results at appropriate intervals. Be sure to review the results with others.

Final Thoughts

Including children with disabilities in a foreign language class may seem overwhelming, but best practices for students with disabilities can also be best practices for all students. By using a practical, teacher-friendly, step-by-step approach such as INCLUDE to evaluate the situation, you may find ways to increase access and learning for everyone. Start with yourself and what you expect, need, and offer; evaluate your students' strengths and needs (as well as successes); and address mismatches or problem areas. Decide how to respond to these needs and strengths, and then how and when you will evaluate your students to monitor for success. By approaching your teaching duties realistically and by viewing your practices through the lens of universal design, foreign language instruction does not have to be a time-consuming preparation nightmare for the teacher of students with disabilities.

Additional Resources to Explore

Differentiating Instruction

Oxford, R. (1989). The role of styles and strategics in second language learning. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED317087) Available from ERIC database: http://vvww.eric.ed.gov/

Renzulli, J. S., Leppien, J. H., & Hays, T. S. (2000). The multiple menu model: A practical guide for developing differentiated curriculum. Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press.

Silver, H. F., Strong, R. W., & Perini, M. J. (2000). So each may learn: Integrating learning styles and multiple intelligences. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson. C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. A. & McTighe, J. (2006). Integrating differentiated instruction and understanding by design: Connecting content and kids. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Alternative Assessments

Hancock, C. R. (1994). Alternative assessment and second language study: What and why? Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED376695) Available from ERIC database: http://www.eric. ed.gov/

Lazear, D. (1999). Multiple intelligence approaches to assessment: Solving the assessment conundrum. (Rev. ed.). Tueson, AZ: Zephyr Press.

Curriculum-Based Measurement

Espin, C., Shin, J., & Busch, T. (2000, Spring). Focusing on formative evaluation. Current Practice Alert, 3. Available: http:// www.teachingld.org/pdf/Alert3. pdf

Fuchs. L., & Fuchs, D. (2003). Curriculumbased measurement: A best practice guide. NASP Communiqu, 32(2). Available: http:// www.nasponline.org/ publications/cq322cbminsert.html

Shinn. M. R.. Shinn. M. M.. Hamilton, C.. & Clarke, B. (2002). Using curriculumbased measurement in general education classrooms to promote reading success. In M. R. Shinn, H. M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 113-142). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists. Retrieved July 20, 2004, from http://www.aeall.k12.ia.us/ spedresearch/res0403/ research-shinn_ article.html

Foreign-Language Instruction

Ganschow, L., & Sparks, R. (2001). References on foreign language learning in relation to at-risk students and students with learning disabilities. ADFL. Bulletin, 32(3), 65-70. Available: http://www. mla.org/ADFL/hulletin/v32n3/323065. htm

Schulz, R. A. (1998). Foreign language education in the United States: Trends and challenges. The ERIC Review: K-12 Foreign Language Education, 6(1), 6-13 [Electronic Archival Copy). Retrieved July 12, 2004, from Center for Applied Linguistics Web site: http:// www.cal. org/resources/ericreview.pdf

Internet Resources

Adapt Lessons to Reach All Students

http://www.teacher@vision.fen.com/ teaching-methods/special- education/ 3759.html

Includes valuable design principles. This is provided in partnership with the Council for Exceptional Children; it is excerpted from Toward Successful Inclusion of Students with Disabilities: The Architecture of Instruction by Edward J. Kamenui, and Deborah Simmons (1999).

Curriculum-Based Measurement Warehouse

http://www.interventioncentral.org/ htmdocs/interventions/cbm warehouse, shtml

Includes training and resources, probes (including emerging literacy probes for Spanish language), tools for graphing results by hand or computer, links to resources and references, and even an online tutorial created by S. Deno.

LDOnline

http://www.ldonline.org

LDOnline is a valuable resource for teachers and parents. Enter the term "foreign language" into the Web page search engine to locate research-based articles.

National Standards for Language Education

http://www.actfl.org/i4a/pages/index. cfm?pageid = 3652

The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.

The Instant Access Treasure Chest: The Foreign Language Teacher's Guide to Learning Disabilities

http://www.fln.vcu.edu/ld/ld.html

The most comprehensive list of resource links for this subject available on the Web.

"best practices for students with learning disabilities are generally best practices for all students" (Landmark, 1997, p. 1)

"Accommodations and modifications are types of adaptations that are made to the environment, curriculum, instruction, or assessment practices in order for students with disabilities to be successful learners and to participate actively with other students in the general education classroom and in schoolwide activities." (PEAK Parent Center; emphasis added)

Recipe for Success: INCLUDE

Step 1: Identity classroom environmental, curricular and instructional demands.

Step 2: Note student learning strengths and needs.

Step 3: Check for potential areas of student success.

Step 4: Look for potential problem areas.

Step 5: Use information gathered to brainstorm instructional adaptations.

Step 6: Decide which adaptations to implement.

Step 7: Evaluate student progress.

(Frien\ds & Bursuck, 2001)

Universal design is "a systematic process of creating effective, universally accessible learning opportunities" for all students. (Nolet & McLaughlin, 2000, p. 11)

Have You Considered Peer-Mediated Instruction?

By using students as peer tutors, you incorporate extra practice time and can increase the amount of review time for everyone. For example, you might consider dividing the class into reading partners to reread passages you have just finished, or create cooperative groups to review vocabulary and spelling.

Be sure to

* Create partnerships or design groups that place students of varying ability together, and

* Provide specific materials or very structured activities.

A Creative Alternative. Try starting an early morning, cross- aged mentoring program involving students from different grade and/ or skill levels that meets before classes begin. This can be done on a small, manageable scale until you feel comfortable with the practice of student-tostudent learning.

Have You Considered Alternative Assessments?

Traditional types of assessments evaluate what a student knows, not what he or she can do with what they know. With the goal of communicative proficiency taking center stage, foreign language instruction and assessment are becoming more intertwined. Alternative assessment in the foreign language discipline, also known as "authentic assessment," is a contextual approach to evaluating a student's progress. It involves using "techniques [that] typically encompass multiple skills, emphasize the processes as well as the products of learning, involve ongoing interaction between students and teachers, and engage students in planning for and interpreting the results of assessment” (Rennie, 1998, p. 30).

Consider

* A portfolio of student work, which may include audio and/ or video as well as written examples of proficiency.

* A journal.

* An e-mnil folder of correspondence with an Internet pen-pal.

* A cooperative class project-like putting on a play.

* Oral interviews.

Alternative assessment is not meant to replace criterion- referenced testing, nor is it necessarily a replacement for state mandated standardized testing. It does provide a teacher with a greater range of evidence for assessing proficiency and also supports different learning styles and promotes the acceptance of diversity. In some cases, a student with disabilities may have been identified as a student for whom state-mandated standardized testing is not appropriate. In this case, alternative assessments may become part of his or her alternative assessment as specified in the IEP.

Things to Remember

* Keep it simple! Try things that are less complex first. For example, Mary may be able to do the chapter assignment if the reading is done in class and you let her tape-record her answers.

* Don’t make work for yourself or overcompensate by including accommodations or modifications that aren’t needed. For example, Elspeth has difficulty hearing but you don’t need to put every word you utter in writing. Add simple visual and/or written cues along with your oral instruction.

* Be sure that the problem is not physical in origin. For example, George cannot help his outbursts and no amount of behavior modification will change that fact.

* Be sure you are using the right “antidote.” Address an academic problem with an academic accommodation or modification, and a behavior problem with a behavioral intervention.

* Keep in mind that small steps are best for teachers, too, and don’t set yourself impossible goals.

Have You Considered Multisensory, Structured, Metacognitive Language (MSML) Instruction?

MSML is a specialized approach to teaching at-risk students-such as those with language-based learning disabilities-a foreign language. It is adapted from the multisensory structured language Orton-Gillingham principles. It is multisensory, structured, explicit, cumulative, metacognitive, highly repetitive, phonetic, alphabetic, and analytic/synthetical instruction. Lessons focus on one of three rule systems: phonology/ orthography, grammar, or vocabulary/ morphology (see Schneider, 1996).

Have You Considered Curriculum-Based Measurement?

Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is used to monitor a student’s developing proficiency over the long term. A set of equivalent assessments, that target performance on academic skills to be learned by the end of the school year (or other end point), is created. They are short assessments, administered the exact same way each time, and can be given several times per week. These probes identify the progress and areas of weakness of the whole class as well as the individual. CBM gives teachers immediate and ongoing feedback relative to local curricular goals that should be tied to statewide assessment.

This article describes a practical resource tool to assist foreign language teachers in making instruction accessible to students with disabilities. Friend and Bursuck’s INCLUDE model is described along with examples and pragmatic tools such as peer- mediated instruction and alternative assessment.

References

American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. (2001). National standards for language education. Retrieved January 2, 2004, from http://www.actfl.org/i4a/ pages/index.cfm?pageid = 3652

Barr, V. (1993). Foreign language requirements and students with teaming disabilities. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED355834) Available from ERIC database: http://www.eric.ed.gov/

Friend, M., & Bursuck, W. D. (2001). Including students with special needs: A practical guide for classroom teachers (2nd ed). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Landmark College. (1997). Landmark College: Best practices in foreign language instruction for students with learning disabilities. Retrieved July 6, 2001, from http://www.fipse.aed.org/ grantshow. cfm?grantNumber = P116B961634

Levine, M. D. (1990). Learning disorders and the flow of expectations. Their World, 1990. Retrieved June 4, 2004, from Learning Disabilities OnLine Web site: http://www.ldonline.org/ ld_indepth/ general_info/gen-l.html

Moore, F. X. (1995). Section 504 and the Americans with Disabilities Act: Accommodating the learning disabled student in the foreign language curriculum. Association of Departments of Foreign Languages Bulletin, 26(2), Winter 1995. Retrieved January 3, 2004, from Virginia Commonwealth University Web site: http:// www.nn.vcu.edu/ld/504.html

Nolet, V., & McLaughlin, M. J. (2000). Accessing the general curriculum: Including students with disabilities in standards-based reform. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Orkwis, R., & McLane, K. (1998). A curriculum every student can use: Design principles for student access. Reston, VA: ERIC/OSEP Special Project. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED423654) Retrieved July 1, 2004, from http://www.cec.sped.org/osep/udesign. html

PEAK Parent Center, (n.d.) Accommodations & modifications fact sheet (On-line). Available: http://www.peakparent.org/ pdf/ fact_sheets/accommodations.pdf

Rennie, J. (1998). Current trends in foreign language assessment. The ERIC Review: K12 foreign language education, 6(1), 27-31 [Electronic Archival Copy]. Retrieved July 2, 2004, from Center for Applied Linguistics Web site: http://www.cal.org/ resources/ ericreview.pdf

Schneider, E. (1996). Teaching foreign languages to at-risk learners [On-line). CAL Digest EDO-FL-97-03. Available: http:// www.cal.org/resources/digest/schnei01. html

Schwarz, R. L. (1997). Learning disabilities and foreign language teaming: A painful collision [On-line]. Available: http:// www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/foreign_ lang/painful_collision.html

Schwarz, R. L. (1999). The First International Multilingualism and Dyslexia Conference [On-line], Available: http://www. ldonline.org/ld_indepth/foreign_lang/ multilingualism_conf699.html

Scott, S., & Manglitz, E. (2000). Foreign language learning and learning disabilities: Making the college transition. Their World, 2000. Retrieved January 3, 2004, from Learning Disabilities OnLine Web site: http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/ foreignjang/ their_world_2000.html

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Emily Duvall (CEC PA Federation), Doctoral Candidate, Curriculum & Instruction (Language & Literacy Department), College of Education, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park.

Address correspondence to Emily Duvall, 258 Chambers Building, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802 (ernail: eddl30@psu.edu).

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 38, No. 6, pp. 42-48.

Copyright 2006 CEC.

Copyright Council for Exceptional Children Jul/Aug 2006

(c) 2006 Teaching Exceptional Children. Provided by ProQuest Information and Learning. All rights Reserved.