Progress and Challenges in China’s Special Education Development: Observations, Reflections, and Recommendations

By Ellsworth, Nancy J; Zhang, Chun

ABSTRACT

This article examines important aspects of special education in the People’s Republic of China today. To provide a context for understanding current practices, it first looks at cultural and historical influences on the development of special education in China. Next, it presents a current experience with the education of students with disabilities in Beljing and Shanghai. In conclusion, it offers recommendations for addressing challenges and promoting sustained progress in the further development of special education systems and models to educate students with disabilities in China.

TO MORE EFFECTIVELY EDUCATE ALL STUDENTS with disabilities worldwide, it is important to understand practices in developing countries such as China that have different histories and perspectives from those of the United States and the western industrialized countries. Special educators can strive to develop culturally sensitive and costeffective ways of educating all students through collaborative efforts. It was this understanding and intention that stimulated the first author’s personal observations in several special education classrooms in China undertaken in 2003.

The People’s Republic of China, the country with the largest population in the world, is engaged in a unique experience as it develops its special education system. The establishment and development of the education systems, including special education, in China are largely influenced by the Confucian philosophy, the socialist ideology, its economic and political changes, and influences from western countries (Li & Altaian, 1997).

According to the statistics of special education, in 2003, 364,740 students with hearing impairment, visual impairment, and mental retardation were served in 12,881 classes; 12,146 classes were in special education schools, serving 123,169 students; 727 were special education classes in general education schools, serving 5,094 students; and 8 of them were special education classes in junior high vocational schools, serving 66 students. At the primary school level, 190,324 students were included in general education classrooms, and 46,087 students were included in general junior and high school vocational programs (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2003). Today, students with disabilities constitute about 5% of China’s student population in a 13-billion population country (Deng, PoonMcBrayer, & Farnsworth, 2001). In the United States, about 10% of all students were identified for special education services in the late 1990s (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). The difference in the percentage of the population identified as having disabilities in China and in western countries is probably due to differences in the definition of a disability. For example, about half of the students with disabilities in the United States are categorized as having a learning disability (LD)-a designation not widely recognized in China yet. Special education in China mainly includes categories of hearing impairment, visual impairment, and mental retardation.

Within the last 2 decades, China’s special education system has undergone tremendous growth and change, which poses both opportunities and challenges to educators, researchers, and policymakers. In the following sections, we will describe the major cultural and historical perspectives that have influenced the development of the special education system in China. Then, we will report on the first author’s recent experience with the education of students with disabilities in several special education and inclusive classrooms in Beijing and Shanghai. Finally, we will offer recommendations for continued progress in the process of developing programs or models to educate students with disabilities in China and practices that may inform educators in other countries as well.

CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL INFLUENCES

The most important influence on Chinese culture and education over the centuries is the teachings or philosophy of Confucius developed from 551-479 BC. Confucius believed that “the Way [tao] is to live within the structures of the social order, adopting the virtues appropriate to a son, mother, ruler, etc.” (Blackburn, 1994, p. 75). Confucius’ emphasis on respect for authority, whether it be the elders of the family or the leaders of the social hierarchy, and on a designated social status for groups of people (e.g., husband and wife, sons and daughters, educated and uneducated) in order for a family and society to maintain harmony helped preserve the established social order and encouraged the static nature of Chinese society over the centuries. Furthermore, Confucius valued education for scholars and for those who would be serving in the bureaucracy, but not the education of the populace at large. This ideology may to a certain extent have prevented China from developing an equal educational system before 1949 (Deng et al., 2001). Ideologies froml949 to now (e.g., equality between men and women) seem to have promoted the development of public systems to provide more equal opportunities for many groups who are more disadvantaged in China (minority groups, people with disabilities, women, etc). The evolution of cultural beliefs and ideologies in China’s history has had a profound impact on China’s education systems for people with and without disabilities.

Based on China’s unique historical and political changes, we will discuss the development of China’s special education system according to three chronological stages: from the late 19th century to 1948, between 1949 and 1978, and from 1979 to the present (see Table 1). These chronological stages reflect major societal changes in China: For example, the People’s Republic of China was established in 1949, and China began to open its doors to the world in 1979. These stages are marked by distinct differences, each being affected by distinctive ideological, political, and socioeconomic changes (Yun, 1994). The interdependence of these factors is critical in understanding the development of special education in China.

Special Education Before 1949

Special education got its start in the late 19th century, when western influences, in the form of religious missionaries, entered China. Between 1874 and 1948, Christian missionaries founded schools in China, some of which taught religion and basic survival skills to students with hearing and visual impairments. In the same time frame, a few charitable organizations also established schools for children with disabilities (Yang & Wang, 1994). In contrast to the Confucian ideology, the objective of these charitable organizations was to educate a broad range of children rather than to prepare an elite bureaucracy. The influence of these schools in a time of economic hardships for the common people was apparent, which provided a model for educating children with disabilities rather than keeping them at home. Under harsh economic conditions, people with disabilities were judged not to be capable and productive and, thus, looked down upon by society. During this period, private education was the norm for those who could afford it, and little else in the way of public schooling existed. The government during this period of time appears to have played a negligible role in the education of the common people, including those with disabilities.

Special Education Between 1949 and 1978

Major societal changes were initiated in 1949, when the People’s Republic of China was founded. All private businesses and organizations, including schools, were absorbed into the country’s public system. During this time, economic and social developments were the most important correlates of changes in general and special education in China (Deng et al., 2001; Li & Altman, 1997; Moss, 1994). The political ideologies and economic system of the People’s Republic of China caused a shift to public education with the goal of educating children to become workers with a consciousness of socialism. For example, the equal status among groups such as women and men, people with and without disabilities, and people from the urban and rural areas that was promoted through the political reform encouraged students with disabilities to participate in labor and social life as an equal member of society. Instruction for students with disabilities was focused on remediation and the correction of presumed deficits in order for them to acquire the skills for labor and work (Piao, 1998). During this time, special education became a part of public education, even though no special support (i.e., funding and legislation) was provided to students with disabilities; due to the ideology and poor economic conditions at that time; these students were treated as equals to those without disabilities. Furthermore, the special education system developed slowly due to poor economic conditions and drastic political movements, especially during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), when many schools were closed (Yun, Piao, & Gargiulo, 1995).

Special Education Development Since 1979

The development of a modern educational system commenced when China began to open its doors to the world in 1979. I\ncreased contact with the western countries and China’s improved economic conditions led to major social and economic reforms. One of these reforms was that special education was redefined as a part of compulsory public education (Chen, 1996), meaning that all children are entitled to 9 years of free public education-6 years of elementary education and 3 years of secondary school education. Two laws that have had a tremendous impact on education, including special education, were passed. The Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (1986) established the right of students to be educated in public schools, and the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities (1990) is considered a civil rights act for people with disabilities. According to Deng Pufang, chairman of the China Disabled Persons’ Federation, by 2001, all 31 provinces in China had adopted local laws or regulations to implement legislation for the protection of persons with disabilities (“Law ensures,” 2001). Together, these laws provide a legal foundation for China’s expanding special education system.

School entrance rates of students with disabilities during this period have increased dramatically due to the laws and the economic development. The emphasis of special education usually is placed on vocational education, which is affected by local resources and economic markets (Yang & Wang, 1994). The hope is that these students will be more employable when they finish school. Another change is that universities have begun to enroll academically talented high school graduates with disabilities, especially those with physical disabilities (“Colleges open doors,” 2002).

Because most of China’s population lives in rural areas, the cost of funding special schools for most children with disabilities in these areas is huge (Mitchell, 1995). Influenced by inclusion in western countries, the “Learning in the Regular Classroom” movement gained popularity in the early 1990s and has been encouraged by the Ministry of Education in China. Because of this movement, the enrollment rate of students with disabilities has increased dramatically (Deng & Manset, 2000; Xiao, 1996). Among a total of 370,000 students enrolled in school in 2004, about 41,700 had a visual impairment, 112,800 had a hearing impairment, and 217,300 had mental retardation. Most students with disabilities (about 65%) are now educated in general education settings (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2004).

Like the United States, China is grappling with the complexities of including students with disabilities in general education classes. Even in the United States, with class sizes about half that of typical Chinese classes and with a paraprofessional or a second teacher assisting in inclusive classrooms, the smooth and full implementation of inclusion is still a challenge. Deng et al. (2001) noted that “indiscriminately copying the experiences of other countries has led to severe problems in special education in China. For example, the mixed results of inclusion in the United States were not considered when China imported the idea” (p. 296). In short, it takes time and experience for a system to mature and to develop models of special education that are effective for its particular situation. The following section will present a descriptive account of the actual happenings in several classrooms and models educating students with disabilities to illustrate some of the challenges and opportunities facing special education in China.

OBSERVATIONS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN CHINA

In the spring of 2003, the first author, an American special educator and teacher trainer, spent several weeks visiting special education classrooms in Beijing and Shanghai. She also talked with special education professors and students at Beijing Normal University and East China Normal University in Shanghai, two of the most prestigious teacher training institutions in China. Because this was her first trip, she was most interested in getting a picture of the special education system in China and in sharing this experience with the international community.

With the assistance of a bilingual graduate assistant who spoke English and Chinese, the first author spent a great deal of time observing classes and talking with special education teachers and principals. Based on the nomination of schools by faculty members from Beijing and East China Normal Universities, she mainly visited special education schools, but she also visited schools in which special education classes were housed in general education buildings in which students with disabilities were included in general education classes.

One of the common characteristics of the schools visited was that the special education class size was similar to that in the United States (i.e., 1-12 students) and varied according to the needs of the children. The teachers seemed to have a much heavier instructional and management workload than their counterparts in the United States because paraprofessionals or teacher assistants were not employed. Only once were two teachers observed working together in the room; otherwise teachers worked alone. However, teachers taught fewer periods per day than is typical in the United States, and often different teachers alternated in teaching the same group of students in China. This is due to the fact that content areas (i.e., math, science) are taught by content specialty teachers across grade levels from elementary to high schools in China, whereas in the United States, in elementary schools, teachers teach all subject areas with the assistance of teacher assistants.

The first author also visited two schools that were considered to be models of excellence, even when compared to those in western countries in which the educational system is more fully developed. These schools, one in Beijing and one in Shanghai, will be described in more detail. Both schools demonstrate that high-quality special education is now in place for some students with disabilities in China.

Special Education School in Beijing

The first school is a school for students with mental retardation in Beijing. To provide a context, for Beijing’s population of more than 17 million people, there is one special school for children with mental retardation and autism in each of Beijing’s seven districts, and this is one of these seven schools. There are also four schools in Beijing for students with hearing impairment, and one for those with visual impairment. Many students with mild mental retardation are being educated in general education schools, most being placed in special education classes within those schools. Moreover, many students with disabilities might be still kept at home, which has been the case for most children with disabilities in the past.

Established in 1987, this school in Beijing has 60 staff members who teach more than 200 children in 17 classrooms. The school provides professional development and resource centers and an intensive diagnostic and training center for 3- and 4-year-olds with autism, as well as special education classes for school-age children. Students range from 3 to 20 years of age, and most school- age students attend seven classes per day. The school day runs from 8:30 to 3:30, including a hot lunch served in the classroom that is followed by a rest period. During non-instructional times, students have a great deal of freedom in the classroom; they are physically active, comfortable, and well behaved. Schooling is highly academic, and skills instruction fills most of the teaching periods. Furthermore, students participate in art and music classes and physical education exercises. The most salient characteristics of the observation in this school included the following:

* instructional time mostly used for teaching academics;

* an effective classroom routine, often including a behavior modification chart;

* the provision of whole-group and small-group instruction, with students grouped by ability rather than by age;

* active teacher-student interaction, with students often responding orally;

* animated teaching and frequent teacher praise and feedback for student responses;

* multisensory instruction;

* students’ active engagement in learning;

* students’ kindness to each other; and

* support of teachers from the principal, who is viewed as a leader in creating an effective school.

This school in Beijing also has an evaluation and training center for 3- and 4-year-olds with autism. Some children are brought from other parts of the country because such facilities are scarce. One psychology professor at Beijing Normal University pointed out that typically, diagnosis and evaluation is done by medical doctors in hospitals instead of in schools. At this center, parents are encouraged to accompany their children, and through assisting with their children’s evaluations and activities, parents are themselves learning to work with their children more effectively. Including participating parents, the adult-child ratio at this center is close to one to one. The diagnostic and educational program includes motor skills, language skills, social skills, and behavioral skills training. Professional development is encouraged; for example, one teacher said that she had recently attended a workshop where Ivar Lovaas had spoken about applied behavior analysis.

Some of these young children make progress even during the evaluation period-the beginning stage of the intervention. If parents can provide transportation and other fees, some of these children will remain in one of the school’s four classes for preschool-age students with autism. This evaluation and training center provides an early intervention model in China. Another widely praised early intervention center for young children with autism that focuses on parent training is the Beijing Xing\xing Yu Education Institute for Children with Autism. Xingxing Yu was founded in 1993 by the parent of a child with autism (McCabe & Tian, 2001; “Special education,” 2001).

Inclusive School in Shanghai

The second school visited by the first author was a kindergarten in Shanghai. The structure and operation of the program was similar to that for school-age children at the previously described school in Beijing. In one class, each child was pulled out of the general education classroom for daily, intensive, one-on-one instruction. For example, with the oneon-one instruction, hand puppets were used to help the child to identify and recognize emotions and feelings on faces; then later in the session, a computer program was used as a part of speech-language instruction. Unusually, the teacher used animated teaching, frequent changes of activities, and enthusiastic praise for each incremental gain, which created high motivation for students’ active participation and learning.

In this school, the general education classrooms had a few students with disabilities included in most classes. The principal expressed concern because many parents of children without disabilities withdrew their children from this school and placed them in other schools when they learned about this. She explained that parents feared that having children with disabilities in the class would affect their own child’s progress. Because kindergarten is not free in China, the tuition paid by parents is critical in funding the school. Along the same lines, teachers commented that there is sometimes concern for the reputation of a school if a special education class is housed in the building. This principal was committed to her program, and she has increased her efforts to educate parents and the broader community. She believed that only when the public stigma of people with disabilities is eliminated will these children receive a full inclusive public education. Thus, despite the recent Learning in the Regular Classroom movement, the implementation of inclusion still encounters a variety of challenges.

Most of the inclusive schools in China that were observed by the first author provided inservice training and support or professional development to special education and general education teachers who had students with disabilities included in their classes. This was viewed as an important component of the mission of these inclusive schools. The inclusive programs in these schools in Beijing and Shanghai are of particular significance, because they provide models of good special education practice as China expands and tries to enhance its special education and teacher preparation programs. Such achievements are to be celebrated. Meanwhile, among a large population of children with disabilities, only a small percentage of students with disabilities have access to such opportunities.

SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHER PREPARATION

Throughout the first author’s visit to special education schools and universities in China, the topic of greatest interest to educators was how “individualized instruction” works in the United States, probably because group instruction is typical in China, where class sizes are large. In discussion with these teachers, it emerged that the absence of paraprofessionals or teacher assistants to support the teacher seemed to be an important factor that may make individualized instruction challenging as the system now operates. When asked how special education could be improved, teachers and principals spoke of the need to increase high-quality teacher preparation programs in all parts of the country, not just in major cities such as Beijing and Shanghai. They suggested that greater access to innovative and effective instructional methods (i.e., individualization, modifications) and research, perhaps through the Internet (e.g., Web sites), and inservice teacher training on site or through higher education institutions during summer would help achieve high standards for teaching students with disabilities.

Conversations with teacher educators or trainers at Beijing Normal University and East China Normal University indicated that programs to prepare special education teachers are developing rapidly. Several teachers mentioned that rigorous examinations still are the most important determining criteria for accepting teacher candidates to teacher training programs. They noted that in teacher training programs, an understanding of theory is more highly valued than student teaching competence, and that special education student teaching experience lasts only about 4 weeks. The growth in special education training facilities in the last 15 years, both in physical facilities (i.e., buildings) and teaching staff (i.e., faculty members and instructors), in China has been remarkable. Teacher candidates (preservice and inservice), psychologists, and administrators can study at undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral levels at both of these universities.

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As China is blending its unique experience with that of the international community, many issues need to be addressed in its efforts to train special education personnel and to provide special education to children with disabilities within China’s particular political, economic, and ideological contexts. Over the last 2 decades, China has made great strides toward developing programs and providing services for students with disabilities. China’s need to expend much of its resources to remain economically and politically stable and self-reliant, compounded by the sheer number of students with disabilities, the scarce availability of special education training programs in its vast geographic regions, especially in the rural areas, and, more important, the stigma attached to individuals with disabilities-all of these factors complicate achieving the objective of effectively educating all students with disabilities. Although the legislation of 1986 and 1990 mandates schooling for all children, achieving the goal of providing appropriate free public education for children with disabilities is still a huge challenge and endeavor.

A number of issues need particular attention as China’s special education system moves to another stage of higher expectations, higher standards, and comprehensive services for children with disabilities and their families. These issues may include

* access to special education for children with disabilities in rural areas;

* personnel training across regions of the country (e.g., rural and urban areas);

* use of trained paraprofessionals or teacher assistants, or collaborative team teaching, to assist teachers in providing modifications and individualized instruction to students with disabilities;

* development of instructional materials, modification of materials, and assistive technologies;

* development of assessment instruments for diagnosis, instruction, and intervention; and monitoring of student progress;

* development and expansion of early intervention for young children with disabilities and their families;

* Learning in the Regular Classroom research and best practices; models of inclusion; collaborative teaching in different inclusion models;

* public awareness and education about disabilities and special education;

* special education funding for personnel preparation, technical assistance, and research;

* collaborative training and research projects with the international community (e.g., exchange scholars, consultants with expertise in effective special education models to work with special educators in China).

Such suggestions can be examined and prioritized based on the needs of students with disabilities and the allocation of resources in China. Politically and ideologically, the current administration is looking for ways to build a harmonious society in which people of different abilities and characteristics are included and respected, and special education can collaborate with general education in building an inclusive and harmonious school community. This can also be extended to the societal level so that stigma and discrimination against certain groups-such as people with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) or people with disabilities-and public awareness of such issues can be addressed at societal levels. One of the strategies used by the current administration to address discrimination is that celebrities in China are engaged in social marketing for promoting harmony, understanding, and respect for individuals who are discriminated against. Economically, more resources for education are available because of the economic growth in China. In 2006, the administration allocated much funding to schools in rural areas, especially in the western part of China, where the economy is relatively weaker. This has encouraged more students, including students with disabilities, to receive free public education in those areas. Thus, national policies aimed at supporting people who are disadvantaged are critical for making significant social and educational changes.

As globalization continues, access to information and research through the Internet, media, publications, international conferences, and exchange scholars will connect the education community more closely at different levels (i.e., local, state/ provincial, national, and international). For example, educators in rural areas in China can exchange ideas with their peers elsewhere if they are connected to the Internet. Collaboration with special educators worldwide will also be helpful in the development of an effective special education system in China and elsewhere. For example, when there is a universal policy in China for promoting acceptance and harmony, people with disabilities are not separated from other disadvantaged groups. Another practice that has been in place in China is that high school and postsecondary vocational programshave been inclusive in promoting the employment of people with and without disabilities. Most important, each country, while learning from the successful experiences of other countries, has to examine and improve its own system within its own unique cultural, economic, political, and policy contexts.

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NANCY J. ELLSWORTH, EdD, is an associate professor of special education at Fordham University. Her current interests include learning disabilities, reading difficulties, and international special education. CHUN ZHANG, PhD, is an associate professor of early childhood special education at Fordham University. Her research interests include culturally and linguistically responsive practices, inclusion, and interagency collaboration. Address: Nancy J. Ellsworth, Fordham University, Division of Curriculum and Teaching, 113 West 60th St, New York, NY 10023; e-mail: nancy.ellsworth@stanfordalumni.org

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