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Interdisciplinary Approaches in the New Curriculum in Greece: A Focus on Music Education

Posted on: Friday, 9 July 2004, 06:00 CDT

Interdisciplinary approaches in teaching have become popular during the last few years. A number of programs have been planned and carried out in many countries around the world, and numerous discussions and debates have taken place regarding the effectiveness of these programs as well as the practical problems of their application. An extended bibliography already exists analyzing various interdisciplinary methods, clarifying different terms used to describe them, presenting results from many researchers, and proposing solutions to potential problems in putting interdisciplinarity into effect.

Greece is slowly entering the interdisciplinary era with its latest educational reform. This change represents a shift towards stressing an interconnection of subjects in all levels of education. During the last three years, a number of pilot programs have been applied in primary and secondary education with the intention of promoting a more holistic approach to education, an approach that would help pupils make the connections between different subjects, disciplines, and areas of knowledge.

This new trend toward interdisciplinary approaches in teaching and learning, which can be seen spreading all over the world, is by no means revolutionary or new. It is as old as the ancient Greek ideal of the unity of knowledge. Until recently, discussions and debates about interdisciplinarity were centered on the notion of "holistic education" which aimed at providing education for the whole person by utilizing a curriculum that would include more than mathematics and languages and that would help children to "learn how to think" through the use of different teaching methodologies. By incorporating these ideas on teaching methodologies and utilizing the connections between subjects-or even by effacing and erasing the boundaries from separate disciplines-the educational world has been traveling on the "integration highway" for the past few years.

Interdisciplinary Approaches: The International Scene

The notion of interdisciplinary integration can be found initially in Plato's "Politeia" where the philosopher claims that the varied areas of knowledge are interrelated according to the deeper meaning of "reality." In his view, they constitute a "harmonic unity" that should govern the evolution of a young person's education.

Centuries later, a related idea developed that provided a parallel to interdisciplinary learning. Rousseau and his contemporaries, introducing their novel ideas for education, claimed that teaching only by the use of books, in the isolated environment of a classroom, offers information and knowledge detached from real life. Without "harmonic unity" with the rest of life, education was meaningless. In the last century, Dewey introduced another similar ideal by arguing that compulsory education does not work. Although it may be possible to oblige children to be physically present in schools, Dewey said, you cannot oblige them to learn. Therefore, the teacher's duty is to select subjects and activities that would keenly interest pupils. These, Dewey thought, would be more likely to result from an interdisciplinary approach.

According to the contemporary philosophy of constructivism and its theory about learning, every person "constructs" his or her own reality and knowledge through personal and meaningful experiences. This viewpoint provides a more recent theoretical basis for interdisciplinary curriculum. The ideas of Russian psychologist Vygotsky about social learning and the interaction of social groups and disciplines during the learning process also fostered contemporary discussions about interdisciplinary approaches in curriculum design. Finally, Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences and Rauscher's experiments on the impact of musical training in different functions of the brain, have helped justify integration and interdisciplinary approaches in teaching and learning (Ellis and Fouts 2001).

Nevertheless, research has not yet provided the necessary evidence that schools where interdisciplinary curriculum and programs are applied have produced superior results in terms of student learning, compared with schools where traditional methods are followed. The research so far suggests some benefits from interdisciplinary approaches, but is based on limited evidence. It is therefore impossible to generalize about the over all efficacy of the integrated curriculum.

The Terminology

Integration, interdisciplinary curriculum, multidiscipline, transdiscipline, metadiscipline, are some of the terms used in the discussions and the bibliography below. They are used not only to determine the nuances between the different programs, but they are also used interchangeably in some cases.

One of the first terms that was used to describe interdisciplinary learning was "integration," which connotes combining, unifying parts into a whole, and participating as an equal. One of the first views of this kind integration, expressed by James Murshell (1956 in Burton, 2001), supported the notion of connecting people and their lives. Integration was seen as a goal to be accomplished in peoples' lives, not as a way to organize the curriculum. Lately, the most commonly used term is "interdisciplinary curriculum," which, as is evident, concerns mainly the design and application of curriculum (Burton, 2001).

The variety of terms with "discipline" as the second component of the compound phrase interdisciplinary, provide the vocabulary with which to describe different curriculum approaches. In studying the way that the terminology has evolved and the different ways that similar words are used, one notes that "transdiscipline" was interpreted by the Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) in 1989 as describing those efforts that go beyond the boundaries of separate disciplines, where a specific problem or issue is the starting point (in Burton, 2001). Almost ten years later, J. A. Beane (1997) assigned the same meaning to the word "integration." he considered as examples of genuine integration only those educational programs that use as their starting point a problem based on life experiences and that rely on situations where boundaries between the different disciplines are dissolved. In Beane's view, this meant that knowledge could be recreated through questions related to personal experiences. he claimed that wherever the root-word "discipline" is used "something other than curriculum integration ... is almost always intended" (Beane 1997, 12).

Many educators arranged all the different possible levels of integration along a continuum. Erickson differentiates a low level of integration, which she names "multidisciplinary," and a high level, which she names "interdisciplinary." The high level presupposes higher thinking skills. Erikson claims that educators usually start with multidisciplinary approaches and gradually, by moving along the continuum, reach interdisciplinarity (Drake 1998).

Burton (2001) describes three levels of curriculum integration:

* Thematic integration, where a theme is selected and the school subjects contribute to this theme. The curriculum is organized by the theme and connections between disciplines are limited.

* Knowledge integration, where integration is achieved when interactive and connective relationships are established between the knowledge and skills in two or more disciplines. For this level to be reached, each discipline should be handled by teachers knowledgeable in the subject area.

* Learner-initiated integration, which is considered the highest level of integration and is believed to be the most important because it presupposes the employment of higher-thinking skills. In Burton's analysis, this level is achieved when learners discover connections on their own by utilizing previous knowledge and independently integrating new information. This level is considered the ultimate goal of an integrated curriculum program.

However, the notion of a continuum is not supported by everyone. Some theorists (Hargreaves, Earl, and Ryan 1996) claim that the perception of a continuum is problematic because every move is assumed to be toward a higher and better level. These critics emphasize that progress on the continuum may be negative instead of positive. Beane (1997) also considers the representation of a continuum problematic because, according to this, full integration presupposes multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches. However, in his view, integration involves a completely different approach that has no connection to traditional discipline-based approaches.

As is evident from the literature, many writers agree that interdisciplinary approaches are different from integrated approaches. In integration the basis is a central issue and the move is outward towards activities that can be used and knowledge and skills that will be acquired. On the other hand, in interdisciplinary approaches, designing the curriculum is still connected with specific skills and contents from each discipline. Even when the different disciplines are approached through a central theme, the main aim is to achieve knowledge and skills from each discipline.

However, many writers use these two terms interchangeably, and there i\s no single model for either of these kinds of curricula across the world. Given the complexity of the issues involved, it is not easy to develop a curriculum where everyone will teach the same content and the same skills and knowledge the same way in every classroom (Drake 1998).

In the countries were such programs and approaches have been applied for several years, a number of key problems have been addressed and some solutions have been proposed. Some of these issues addressed are particularly relevant to the Greek situation, as will soon be evident.

Problems and Proposed Solutions

In the United States, interdisciplinary approaches in designing general curricula and music education have a history of more than twenty years. An important issue that appears heavily in all aspects of the American design of interdisciplinary programs is the definition of a discipline. A clear framework of what constitutes a discipline needs to exist before it is possible to go beyond the separate disciplines and combine them together in interdisciplinary curriculum approaches. Otherwise reform efforts may only lead to shallow knowledge and undisciplined thinking. As Burton observes, "The structures of the disciplines must be known and understood before authentic connections and linkages can be made. Relationships among content areas, processes and products need to be explored in the context of the disciplines from which they have been drawn" (2001, 19).

Clearly interdisciplinary curriculum approaches require more knowledge and care than those based on separate disciplines. Moreover, not all subjects can be interrelated. Interdisciplinary approaches in content and method should be adopted only when they are meaningful and common areas of knowledge exist; the connections between disciplines should be strong and apparent.

In practice, unfortunately, the discipline of music is quite frequently trivialized or even distorted when made a part of an interdisciplinary effort. Although listening to music in the background when studying mathematics or learning a song about colors may be interesting methodological approaches for the mathematician or the art teacher, they do not constitute an interdisciplinary curriculum. Valuable and meaningful knowledge must be promoted in both subjects for authentic integration to happen. Valid connections carry meaning across the boundaries of subject areas (Barren 2001).

In her study of the problem, Bresler (1995) examined the integration of the arts in three elementary schools in Illinois for a period of three years and described four kinds of integration that she saw in classrooms: (a) the subservient approach, in which the arts are used to teach other subjects or to make them more interesting; (b) the co-equal cognitive approach, in which arts concepts and practices are combined in some way with instructional goals from other disciplines; (c) the affective style, in which music and arts are used to create the mood, or are seen as an outlet for children's creativity; and (d) the social integration approach, in which arts performances are used to build school spirit or provide a form of community relations.

Bresler's "a" and "c" categories-namely the "subservient" and the "affective" approaches-are similar to Burton's category of thematic integration noted earlier. "Co-equal cognitive" integration could be seen as a part of his category of knowledge integration under specific circumstances. However, it appears that, in practice, none of the schools that Bresler studied were addressing musical or other art goals in their interdisciplinary curricular programs. Music was used for social integration, to set the mood, to make learning in other subjects more fun, or to provide an outlet for children's creative needs.

There is, therefore, another problem that we should keep in mind when we look at Greek education. How is it possible to make valuable connections between subjects? How can we make sure that integration is not another excuse to use school hours allocated to music and art to teach more mathematics, physics, or literature? What can we, as music educators, do to ensure that meaningful teaching and learning is happening during the class hours afforded for interdisciplinary studies? Indeed, how can we turn the tables and use more time than we had originally for music's sake?

Greek Educational Reforms

As Kazamias (1990) noted, Greek education suffers from the "curse of Sisyphus" as a result of the endless educational changes in Greece. Even today, more than four years after the dawn of the new millennium, the educational situation in Greece still confirms Kazamias' eloquent description.

Even recent events confirm this. The last educational reform took place in 1997, creating stormy reactions from educators, students, and parents and resulting in the replacement of the minister of education. Critics noted many problems and deficiencies in the reform plans and its implementation process. The issue of textbooks is one example. New textbooks were intended as an incarnation of the new educational philosophy and embodiment of the visions of educational reformers. For the first time in the history of Greek education, they included teacher books, student books, and activities books for all subjects. Nevertheless, they fell short of expectations. In some subjects, music included, the long-awaited textbooks were never even published. In other subjects, they reached schools very late in the school year. In some subjects, critics said the textbooks were out of date. Other deficiencies in the reform efforts included the lack of in-service training seminars to familiarize teachers with the intent of the reform and the lack of sufficient information for schools, pupils, parents, and teachers to understand procedural changes and the implementation and transitional stages that had followed.

Many positive aspects, however, characterized this educational reform. Its centerpiece was the "Unified Curriculum Framework" as it is called, considered by many as a major change and a step in the right direction for Greek education. This marked the first time that a national curriculum was created that included not only general aims but also content and methodological proposals for each subject. Also, for the first time, a fully sequential curriculum was created, embracing kindergarten, elementary, and secondary education. All K- 12 education was perceived as a unified process.

Nevertheless, in 2001, yet another new curriculum made its appearance followed by instructions for the replacement of the existing textbooks. "Interdisciplinary" was added to the title, as in the "Interdisciplinary Unified Curriculum Framework," to define the main difference with the 1997 curriculum and to justify its creation.

Why was this change necessary? The previous curriculum had not yet had the chance to be implemented properly. The implementation procedure was just finding its pace, and most of its problems were being solved, and then another change in education was announced with yet more new textbooks. Is this another episode in the long, torturous list of changes in Greek education? What do the instigators of this change intend to accomplish? Specifically, what are the implications for music education in schools? Through the review of the official documents and interviews with the designer of the new curriculum and the head of the music division of the Pedagogical Institute, some light is shed on concerns regarding the necessity of this recent change, its magnitude, its expected outcome, and its results for the educational process and especially for music education.

The Latest Change in Greek Education

Based on the review of the documents provided by the Pedagogical Institution and an interview with Professor C. Konstantinou, head of the committee that created the new curriculum, we could conclude the following: The new Interdisciplinary Unified Curriculum Framework (2001), as declared by its name, is based on the 1997 Unified Curriculum Framework, but a new stress is placed on interdisciplinary approaches to teaching and learning. The general aim of education remains unaltered. However, it is heavily emphasized that, in this new curriculum, the growth of a student's knowledge is considered as a unified and undivided whole.

In the new curriculum, interdisciplinary aims are added for all subjects and teaching paradigms are created where common aims are targeted through the connection of subjects. The creators of the new curriculum suggest that a connection between subjects should be made wherever it is possible so that knowledge can be seen and received as a whole, not fragmented. The main aim of this new curriculum is to organize the teaching material in such a way that "internal cohesion" and "unified development of contents" are achieved. In every discipline, the creators urge, the basic concepts should be defined clearly and any points of connection between them should be stressed.

The creators of the new curriculum outline two strategies are followed that ideally will work in a parallel and complementary fashion:

1. The creation of independent interdisciplinary subjects. The content of these subjects will be derived from different disciplines and will be organized in a way that enhances the connections and common points between them. For example, "The cycle of water in our region, yesterday, today, tomorrow." This subject could draw from different disciplines (physics, biology, geography, ecology, sociology, economy, and so forth). Throughout the year, the aim would be to allow students to approach knowledge through activities that would give them the satisfaction of developing and discovering interconnections between subject areas.

2. The horizontal connection of separate subjects in all levels of education. This could be achieved in a variety of ways, for example:

* By organizing the content in a waythat common concepts are taught paralIeI or consecutively in every subject. For example, while in history class, students learn the events of the Greek revolution for freedom of 1821; in language class, they could read literature and poetry from the same period; and inmusic class they could learn songs from the same era and find out the types of instruments that were used.

* By offering interdisciplinary projects and activities in different subjects that could aid students in acquiring unified knowledge and skills.

Flexible Zone

The original idea advanced by the creators of the new curriculum aspires to reform school time and to approach learning through students' initiative, cooperation, and integration. It also seems to promote critical thinking, collaborative efforts, and personal experiences through activities and projects. One of the main goals of this program is to loosen the boundaries between disciplines and allow for interrelations of knowledge to develop that will put an end to the discrimination between prioritized and second-tier school subjects (as described in the "Flexible Zone" application guide for teachers). The program relies on blocks of time; it is allocated five hours a week in primary education and two hours a week in secondary. It is designed to function as a completely integrated period in the weekly routine of the school. Teaching methods used in this "flexible zone" will differ, as it is expected, from the established procedure of everyday lessons. A multithematic book that is concerned with topical issues (for example, cloning) was prepared; for it, well-known leaders in each field have been asked to write a short passage for children in elementary and secondary education. For example Mikis Theodorakis (a very popular Greek composer and conductor) wrote a piece on music. In similar fashion, teachers receive more comprehensive information and advice, together with guidance for activities and methods that will help students work cooperatively in teams and construct knowledge on their own (Paidagogiko Institouto, 2001). A number of programs piloted during the previous years are incorporated in the Flexible Zone." The "Melina project," for example, is an on-going project in selected elementary schools that that integrates music and art and emphasizes the cultural aspect of education through the arts. Three main axes of competences are targeted: artistic expression, interpersonal communication through art forms, and cultural awareness (YPEPTH 1995).

The new books that are being created for all subjects are intended to be more "user-friendly" and easier to read than older textbooks, with contents limited only to the necessary information. The creators of the new curriculum hope that this will appeal more to students and, thus, make learning easier. The textbooks will be supported by DVDs and CD-ROMs with their main aim being to provide the knowledge "platform" for interdisciplinary projects.

The creators of the curriculum creators want to enhance the importance of subjects that today are considered sec ondary, such as music and physical education. Professor Konstantinidis, head of the committee that created the new curriculum, claims that schools should not provide mathematic-centered or physicscentered education, but students should instead be able to follow their interests.

International bibliographies on integrated and interdisciplinary approaches have been mined, and international programs of studies that are characterized by integration have been copied in part. Nothing, however, was adopted intact. The Greek educational system runs on a number of fixed ideas and has some idiosyncratic problems that create a peculiar situation.

The transition between the old and new curricula appears difficult. Among other issues, an evaluation of both is necessary to discover any weaknesses in either and face them effectively. Applying these ambitious new curricula in secondary education is expected to be more difficult than in primary. That is why, initially, its application will need to be more careful and flexible. Inservice training is imperative because, without the support of the teachers, any change is impossible. Teachers, especially head teachers, should be well informed of the changes and equipped to apply them.

Music Education

According to the official document for the music curriculum for all levels of education, the general goal of music education is for students to build up a personal identity, cultivate creativity, and prepare for life. Music is considered a basic, autonomous subject. However, it is accepted that creating and understanding music is connected with the other arts, as well as other subjects. It is, therefore, especially important to understand clearly how each subject is being integrated, as well as the aims and objectives sought from such connections.

Plans for the content for each level of education include proposals for connections between music and other subjects. For example, in learning how to evaluate and improve on their compositions, students could use modern technology and explore the possibilities that information technology offers for everyday life and music creation. The plans also provide paradigms for interdisciplinary approaches linking music and language, mathematics, geography, sociology, art, poetry, history, religion, and philosophy.

This new curriculum for music education thus aims at creating a sense of interconnection between subjects. It is more flexible and less prescriptive than previous efforts, so that teachers will be able to add their ideas to the proposed or prescribed ones. The American and British curricula were used as reference points, and the latter was found to be closer to the Greek educational procedure. As noted above, despite the similarity, inevitable adjustments were deemed necessary.

In the official documents of this ambitious new curriculum, its creators stress that teacher preparation and inservice training is imperative for its successful application. Also, its creators expect that continuous assessment will guide improvements and corrections over time.

Connecting the International Scene with the Greek

Interdisciplinary approaches in designing the curricula are among the latest developments in the educational world. Most recent theories in teaching and learning emphasize this. Even with its problematical aspects, the new curriculum that is being introduced in Greece is, at the very least, a step in the right direction, one that will align the country's educational system with the latest international developments.

However, the Greek educational system is centralized and conceptually inflexible. Common practice in the classrooms is mostly based on outdated ideas and teacher-centered methodologies where the possibility of activities and knowledge discovered by students is minimal or even unrealistic. To overcome the mentality that has plagued Greek education for so long, a systematic effort, perseverance, and longitudinal planning are needed. One of the major problems of Greek education is that many new reforms disregard the previous ones instead of building on them. This leads to a vicious circle. Previous efforts should not be ignored without prior evaluation. The goal should be to maintain positive elements while replacing the weak ones. This is the best way to move forward.

As is evident from the literature on this subject, it is important that the terminology used is clearly elucidated. The aim of the new reform should be clear. Is the ultimate goal a complete integration in the way that Beane describes? Are the interdisciplinary approaches deriving from the links between subjects with distinct boundaries what the creators of the new curriculum aspired to? Studying the new curriculum we can find that both of these approaches are involved. The description of the content for each discipline, along with identified goals and suggested activities, implies clearly a discipline-based curriculum. The concept of the Flexible Zone suggests an authentic integrated curriculum.

A serious discrepancy can be detected from an analysis of the curriculum documents and the first results from its pilot application. The Flexible Zone, the sole integrated approach, is considered of exceptional importance by the creators of the new curriculum. Through publications about it, an effort is being made to help teachers realize the potential and freedom that this innovative approach can offer them. From preliminary inquiries in the primary schools where the Flexible Zone is being piloted, however, it is evident that teachers are unable to fulfill the expectations. They have had no in-service training in relation to the new ideals of the educational reform or its application. Creative and artistic integrated activities that were intended for the Flexible Zone are rare. Teachers claim that they are not equipped, in terms of content knowledge and materials for covering the proposed aims of this.

Applications to Music Education

Borrowing Burton's levels of integration, we could claim that programs piloted so far in Greece belong to the first level, "thematic integration" and possibly the second level, "knowledge integration" according to Burton's continuum. These programs that are proposed for the Flexible Zone usually included a central theme approached through many different angles. No doubt this could be called "thematic integration." However, depending on the application of these programs in each school, "knowledge integration" could also be achieved, provided that each of the disciplines involved were approached by specialists and concepts and skills from each were clearly taught before proceeding to the connections between them. In addition, the horizontal connection of subjects that is proposed could also reach Burton's second level of "knowledge integration" provided that knowledge and skills of differen\t subjects would be interacted and connected by teachers and through pupils' projects.

An example of such a connection involves music and technology. In technology classes, children learn the basic concepts of constructing sound sources and instruments. In music classes, one of the main aims is the understanding of sound, how it is created, and how we can control it to create music. By applying their knowledge from both subjects, students could create a varied number of instruments; during this project they could be actively using knowledge acquired in separate disciplines and realizing the connection between them and the unity of such knowledge. For this goal to be reached, however, specialists from both subjects must cooperate fully.

No doubt, a number of integrative classes will be closer to Bresler's descriptions of interdisciplinarity, in which art and music are used to set the mood, or aid in teaching another subject. The only way to avoid ending up in this comparatively weak integration of the arts and music is through teacher education. Music teachers have to realize what constitutes an interdisciplinary approach as opposed to what is little more than pointing out the similarities between two subjects. Music aims and goals must be taught to and absorbed by students before they are ready to correlate their musical knowledge with information gained in other subjects. We cannot nurture musical knowledge with activities that can best be described as falling under Bresler's subservient approach, affective style, or even co-equal style of integration. One of the major issues emerging from the international literature concerning music education as part of an interdisciplinary curriculum is the need to maintain music's integrity. In the new curriculum, the autonomy of music is particularly stressed. Thus, it has specific allocated hours during the week and is taught (or should be taught) in all levels of education by specialists. Connections between other subjects will thus be possible if there is cooperation between music specialists and teachers of other subjects during interdisciplinary projects.

Coda

Among the most significant advantages of modern developments in communication and technology is the ease with which countries and cultures can interact, utilize, and exchange information. Cooperation is particularly useful in areas like education and music cducation where it is common knowledge that educators and countries face similar problems around the globe. International comparisons can serve in identifying an issue and proposing a solution before it develops into a serious problem.

Interdisciplinary curricula have been in use for many years in many countries around the world. The new curriculum is the first time that such interdisciplinarity has been applied in Greece and no doubt we have to move by trial and error. Problems that have arisen in the application of interdisciplinary curricula around the world constitute undoubtedly an important guide for what might happen in Greece. Difficulties that were faced elsewhere, however, will not necessarily be faced in Greece. Continuous and specific evaluation and assessment is imperative to ascertain the problems and proceed with solutions. The reform, although a step toward the right direction, is still on paper only.

The main philosophy and directions, as well as the contents for each subject, constitute only one aspect of the change. A number of other factors will determine the success of this effort. A curriculum can only be evaluated through practice. As noted, international comparisons and knowledge of practices around the world, however, could serve as examples to follow or avoid. International literature on education and the previous fruitless reforms in Greece strongly suggest that the teaching community is the true catalyst of change and can be the only real power behind any successful educational change. An important prerequisite for any change is teacher preparation and training. Teachers in primary and secondary education need to be introduced to the many positive effects to which an interdisciplinary approach might lead. They should be well informed of what is expected from them and fully trained to apply the new methodologies. Only then will this ambitious effort stand a chance to transform schools and students.

To achieve such goals in Greece, my policy recommendations, in brief, include

1. clarification of our philosophy of change and definition of its aims;

2. pursuit of basic knowledge on music (knowing, creating, appreciating) in autonomous ways, since this is the only way for interdisciplinary approaches to be meaningful;

3. improved longitudinal planning;

4. continual evaluation of the implementation of the new curriculum;

5. in-service training and support for teachers in all levels of education;

6. intervention by talented mentors in the initial education of teachers.

Implementing such recommendations could foster the integration of knowledge, information, and school subjects and could lead to a realization of the holistic qualities of human beings and the unity of knowledge. It is a goal worth striving for, as are international cooperation and the understanding of our world that working together with other nations could make more real.

The aim of this new curriculum is to organize the material in such a way that "internal cohesion" and "unified development of contents" are achieved.

References

Alahiotis, S. N. 2002. Creativity in schools is not a Utopia [in Greek]. To Vima May 19, 2002.

Barrett, J. 2001. Interdisciplinary work and musical integrity. Music Educators Journal 87 (March): 27-31.

Beane, J. 1997. Curriculum integration. New York: Teachers College Press.

Bresler, L. 1995. The subservient, co-equal, affective and social integration styles of the arts. Arts Education Policy Review 96 (5): 31-37.

Bresler, L., and C. M. Thompson, eds. 2002 The arts in children's lives: Context, culture, and curriculum. Boston: Kluwer.

Burton, L. 1997. A discipline of knowledge approach to promoting music as a universal and vital language of all cultures and times. International Journal of Music Education 30:44-55.

____. 2001. Interdisciplinary curriculum: retrospect and prospect. Music Educators Journal 87 (March): 17-21.

Chrysostoraou, S. 2001. The interdisciplinary approach in teaching music [in Greek]. Academic teaching notes. Athens: University of Athens, Department for Musical Studies.

Drake, S. 1998. Creating integrated curriculum. London: Sage.

Ellis, A., and J. Fouts. 2001. Interdisciplinary curriculum: The research base. Music Educators Journal 87 (March): 22-26.

Hargreaves, A., L. Earl, and J. Ryan. 1996. Schooling for change: Reinventing Education for Early Adolescents. London: Palmer.

Kazamias, A. M. 1990. The Curse of Sisyphus in Greek educational reform: A sociopolitical and cultural interpretation. Modern Greek Studien Yearbook 6:33-53.

Matsaggouras, E. 2003. Integration in school knowledge [in Greekl. Athens: Editions Gregory.

Paidagogiko Institouto. 2001. A Guide to the implementation of the Flexible Zone, [in Greek]. Athens: P.I.

Papamathaiou, M. 2001. Imagination is going to school: An interview with S. N. Alahiotis, president of the Pedagogical Institution [in Greek]. To Vima September 23,2001.

____. 2001. What is happening in the Flexible Zone [in Greek]. To Vima October 28, 2001.

Vygotsky, L. 1986. Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.

Wiggins, R. 2001. Interdisciplinary curriculum: Music educator concerns. Music Educators Journal 87 (March): 40-44.

YPEPTH 1995. Education and Culture: the Melina Project. Athens: YPEPTH.

Smaragda Chrysostomou is a lecturer in music education at the University ot'Athens. She would like to thank for their aid and interviews Professor C. Konstantinou of the University of Ioannina, vice president of the Pedagogical Institution and chair of the committee for the new interdisciplinary curriculum, and Dr. A. Papazari, head of the music division in the Pedagogical Institution and creator of the music curriculum.

Copyright HELDREF PUBLICATIONS May/Jun 2004

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