Archaeologists uncover Ivan the Terrible’s weapon cache in Russia

Archaeologists from the Institute of Archaeology at the Russian Academy of Sciences have uncovered a private arsenal near Zvenigorod near Moscow that they believe belonged to a military commander from the era of Ivan the Terrible, according to a release from the institute. The dig was a rescue dig conducted in search of artifacts prior to the construction of the new Central Circular Highway on the site.

Once a 16th-century village named Ignatievskoe, the location of the discovery was the home of the Dobrynins, a famous Boyar family. One member of this family was selected as one of Ivan the Terrible’s “hand-picked thousand”, which was an elite force in the Tsar’s army, according to the release.

The archaeologists dug up the remains of about 60 of this village’s buildings, finding a large private arsenal housed in the underground storehouse of one of the buildings. The find included helmets, sabres, arrows, and various other tools of warfare of the era like belts and camp tents.

“We’ve never encountered such finds in Moscow region before, neither in cities and especially not in small villages. If this rescue archaeology dig hadn’t been undertaken, all this material would have been completely destroyed during the building of the Central Circular Highway,” says Dr. Asya Engovatov, deputy director of the Institute of Archaeology.

The team believes that this arsenal indicates the existence of a standing army funded by Russian nobility.

“This gives us a much better idea how a Russian noble would have prepared for setting out on a military campaign—each nobleman would have had his own arsenal in readiness,” says Alexei Alexeyev, who was in charge of the excavations. “This excavation enables us to ‘see’ for the first time the preparations made by the noblemen who made up the officer corps elite of the Russian army at the time of the flowering of Muscovy as a Russian state.”

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Image credit: Thinkstock

New York woman gets out of DUI because she suffers from ‘auto-brewery syndrome’

A woman from Hamburg, New York who blew a 0.33 on a breathalyzer has beaten her drunk driving charge—but not for reasons you might think. As it turns out, she has the world’s best excuse: Her body produces its own alcohol naturally, and she had no idea.

The woman, whose name has not been revealed, suffers from what is known as auto-brewery syndrome.

Self-sufficient booze machine

“I had never heard of auto-brewery syndrome before this case,” her attorney, Joseph Marusak, told CNN. “But I knew something was amiss when the hospital police took the woman wanted to release her immediately because she wasn’t exhibiting any symptoms.”

“That prompts me to get on the Internet and see if there is any sort of explanation for a weird reading,” he added. “Up pops auto-brewery syndrome and away we go.”

This condition, which is also known as gut-fermentation syndrome, is extremely rare; its first description by medical professionals was only a little over 100 years ago, although it wasn’t really recognized until the 1970s, and didn’t gain popular recognition until 2013.

How does this happen?

What seems to happen in those with the syndrome is this: An overabundance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae—the yeast used to make bread and beer—reacts with sugars in the small intestine, causing the yeast to produce alcohol. This alcohol is then absorbed into the bloodstream, although many affected by this syndrome don’t feel any effects.

“I’m in touch with about 30 people who believe they have this same syndrome, about 10 of them are diagnosed with it,” Panola College Dean of Nursing Barbara Cordell, who has studied the syndrome for years, told CNN. “They can function at alcohol levels such as 0.30 and 0.40 when the average person would be comatose or dying. Part of the mystery of this syndrome is how they can have these extremely high levels and still be walking around and talking.”

Not a free pass

Gut-fermentation syndrome seems like an excuse that could be taken advantage of—or could it?

“At first glance, it seems like a get-out-of-jail-free card,” Jonathan Turley, a law professor at George Washington University, told the Guardian. “But it’s not that easy. Courts tend to be skeptical of such claims. You have to be able to document the syndrome through recognized testing.”

Which is exactly what the New York woman did. While she had been drinking prior to her charges, she had consumed no more than three drinks over a period of six hours—an amount that, for her size, should not have pushed her over the legal limit of 0.08. Instead, she blew more than four times that amount.

Eventually, the woman was referred to Cordell, who arranged to have the woman monitored by two nurses and a physician’s assistant for a day. They bore witness to the fact that she consumed no alcohol, and took blood samples to measure her blood alcohol content.

“At the end of the day, she had a blood-alcohol content of 0.36% without drinking any alcoholic beverages,” said Marusak.

Cordell later diagnosed her condition, and has since prescribed her a low-carb diet in an attempt to reduce the number of carbohydrates that can be fermented into alcohol—not that the woman will be able to feel the difference.

“She had no idea she had this condition. Never felt tipsy. Nothing,” said Marusak.

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Image credit: Thinkstock

First meteor shower of 2016 to light up the sky this weekend

We’ve only been in 2016 for a couple of days, and already stargazers will have their first chance to see a meteor shower, as the Quadrantids are expected to peak during the night and early morning hours of January 3 and January 4, NASA officials confirmed earlier this week.

According to the US space agency, meteor rates are expected to increase after midnight and peak between 3 am and dawn, local time. The western US will have a better look at the show than the east coast.

The Quadrantids peak in early January each year, NASA explained, and “are considered to be one of the best annual meteor showers.” Unlike many other meteor showers, they have a rather brief peak (only a few hours versus two days), but during that time, between 60 and 200 can be seen per hour in perfect viewing conditions.

Unfortunately, as Gizmodo pointed out, the Quadrantids can also be one of the most difficult meteor showers to observe, due largely to the small window of peak activity. On the plus side, the waning crescent moon in the sky this weekend should not create any interference.

A meteor shower, a dead comet and a disappearing constellation

Unlike many meteor showers, the Quadrantids are not the result of debris from an ordinary kind of comet, according to Gizmodo. Instead, they are fragments of a dead comet, or asteroid, known as asteroid 2003 EH1 that takes more than five years to complete one journey around the sun.

2003 EH1 is what is known as a “rock comet” and was discovered on March 6, 2003, by experts at the Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search (LONEOS). It is only about 3 kilometers in diameter, and debris from this object burning up in the atmosphere causes the Quadrantids.

Like most meteor showers, the Quadrantids were named for a constellation that gives them their radiant, but unlike the Perseids or the Leonids, its constellation is now obsolete. Created in 1795 by French astronomer Jerome Lalande, the constellation “Quadrans Muralis” was removed from the International Astronomical Union (IAU) list of modern constellations in 1922.

“Quadrans Muralis was a super-constellation composed of a combination of stars that are now part of three constellations: The Big Dipper, Bootes, and Dracos,” Gizmodo explained. “It was cut almost 100 years ago in favor of a more distinct grouping of three individual constellations – but not before it had given its name to the meteor shower we’ll see this weekend.”

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Image credit: Thinkstock

New way to measure stars’ gravitational pull discovered

In work that should make it easier to determine which planets are capable of supporting life and which are not, an international team of researchers has come up with a new way to measure the pull of gravity from the surface of the stars orbited by exoplanets.

Their findings, published Friday in the journal Science Advances, will help determine how much a person or other biological lifeform would weigh on that star if it had a solid surface. Using this  new method could measure stars too far away for current techniques.

In their paper, Thomas Kallinger from the University of Vienna and his colleagues explained that a person would weigh 20 times more on the sun than they do on Earth, and 50 times less on a red giant star. Since surface gravity depends on the radius and mass of a star, it can be used to discern the sizes and masses of distant stars, they explained.

“The size of an exoplanet is measured relative to the size of its parent star,” Jaymie Matthews, a professor at the University of British Columbia and study co-author, said in a statement. “If you find a planet around a star that you think is Sun-like but is actually a giant, you may have fooled yourself into thinking you’ve found a habitable Earth-sized world.”

Findings could help find distant, potentially habitable exoplanets

This new approach, which is called the autocorrelation function timescale technique, can be used to determine how big and bright a distant star is, and whether a planet orbiting said star is just the right size and temperature to support liquid water on its surface, Matthews added.

The autocorrelation function timescale technique uses slight variations in the brightness of stars detected by satellites such as NASA’s Kepler mission, and could be used to study planets so far away that not even the basic characteristics of the stars they orbit can be accurately measured.

“The timescale technique is a simple but powerful tool that can be applied to the data from these searches to help understand the nature of stars like our Sun and to help find other planets like our Earth,” said Kallinger, the lead author of the new study. His team’s work may help narrow down the list of research targets for future surveys searching for potentially habitable exoplanets.

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Image credit: Thinkstock

SpaceX says that its reusable rocket is ready to launch again

Just weeks after his company successfully landed the first stage of a Falcon 9 rocket following a December 21 launch involving the release of 11 satellites, SpaceX founder Elon Musk confirmed in a social media post Thursday that the reusable booster is ready to take off again.

According to Mashable and The Verge, Musk posted a picture of the Falcon 9 on Instagram and Twitter  just hours before the start of the New Year, along with a caption that said that there was “no damage” found on the booster and it was all set to “fire again” when needed.

It is unclear at this time when the Falcon 9, which landed at Cape Canaveral following its recent launch and is currently being housed in a hangar there, will once again be used on a mission, but Musk and the SpaceX team have demonstrated that it is capable of a quick turnaround.

Being able to reuse the booster, which cost $60 million to build and $200,000 to fuel, will likely help reduce the costs of spaceflight. However, comments made by Musk during a conference call with the media following the landing, suggest that this particular Falcon 9 first stage might never be used again, since it was “unique” as the first one successfully brought back to Earth.

Falcon 9 was second reusable rocket to land, first to do so vertically

The 15-story booster nailed the vertical landing, becoming the first rocket to successfully do so, after deploying its payload of ORBCOMM communications satellites. It marked the first launch for the SpaceX rocket since it saw a Falcon 9 disintegrate after liftoff back in June.

Following the launch, Musk explained that a few tweaks could be credited for helping the Falcon 9 achieve its mission and land safely. Its  liquid oxygen fuel was about 40 degrees colder than on previous landing attempts, and its kerosene fuel was chilled to 20 degrees instead of 70.

Those temperature changes helped improve engine performance, the SpaceX CEO said, allowing the rocket to finally stick the landing following a pair of unsuccessful attempts earlier in the year. Unlike those tries, the December landing took place on the ground, not on an ocean platform.

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Image credit: SpaceX

New technique allows for 3D printed ceramics

Ceramics are capable of withstanding a ridiculous amount of heat and pressure without suffering significant damage, leading to their use in many different fields, but they also tend to be extremely expensive to make and difficult to fabricate – until now.

According to Engadget and Popular Mechanics, engineers at California-based HRL Laboratories have devised a way to 3D print heat-resistant ceramics that utilizes ultraviolet light and patterned masks instead of heating ceramic powders, which often leads to many flaws and fractures.

As they explained in the January 1 edition of the journal Science, the team developed a material that they have dubbed “preceramic monomers” which they cure using UV rays in a stereolithography 3D printer or through a patterned mask, and which form complex polymer structures.

These structures can have complicated shapes and cellular architecture, they added, and can be made into ceramics without microscopic fractures and with virtually no porosity. With this method, the HRL Laboratories team can produce a complex ceramic part up to 1000 times more quickly than conventional additive manufacturing methods, according to engineer Zak Eckel.

Method could benefit aerospace, defense industries

In most cases, heat-resistant ceramics are difficult to 3D print because they need to be exposed to insanely high temperatures in order to melt, and most current techniques used to produce ceramic materials through additive manufacturing tend to be limited, Popular Mechanics said.

Eckel and his colleagues came up with a substance that are similar to plastics when they are first made, but which transform into ceramics when they are heated in a furnace. The material is made out of a resin, converted into 100 micron thick layers of the plastic-like substance using UV light and heated to 1,000 degrees Celsius while surrounded by argon gas in an over, they added.

Initial tests proved successful at producing the first-ever 3D printed silicon carbide ceramics, and Eckel’s team believes that they can use this same approach to fabricate other types of ceramics as well. Their work could benefit the aerospace industry, which relies upon ceramic components for many parts of their rockets, and has drawn interest from DARPA as well, said Engadget.

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Image credit: Thinkstock

Low water levels lead to discovery of long lost Oregon settlement

Historic droughts are never a good thing, but in the case of record low water levels at one lake in Oregon, there’s at least one silver lining: the discovery of an abandoned town swallowed up by a reservoir more than six decades ago.

The town is question is known as Old Detroit, and according to Smithsonian Magazine and The Statesman Journal, the 200 residents of the town abandoned their homes after Congress passed a law approving the construction of a new dam that would flood the area.

That dam led to the creation of the reservoir named Detroit Lake, which this year just happens to be at its lowest levels in 46 years due to a lack of rainfall in the region. As a result, officials have discovered the remains of Old Detroit, including a perfectly preserved 19th century wagon which was found half-buried in the mud.

“I went on a treasure hunt down along the river, figuring I’d find foundations or something like that,” Dave Zahn, a sheriff’s deputy in Marion County, Oregon, told The Statesman Journal just after Christmas. “Then I saw a piece of old history right there.”

Wagon was built by Ohio company in 1875

A lack of snowfall last winter caused the water levels at Detroit lake to sink to a five-decade low of 143 feet below capacity. This led Zahn and several others to poke around to see what they could find, and led to the discovery of not just the wagon, but a cement-lined pit as well. Thus far, the octagonal-shaped structure has not been identified.

Zahn first spotted the wagon on October 29, and he and US Forest Service archaeologist Cara Kelly opted to keep it a secret to prevent looting and vandalism, Smithsonian Magazine explained. A metal plate attached to the wagon states that it was originally built by the Milburn Wagon Company of Toledo, Ohio in 1875.

Low oxygen levels helped keep the wagon in almost perfect condition, and Kelly explained that to the best of her knowledge, it had not been spotted until this year. “This might not have been its original resting place,” she told the Journal. “It could’ve come from anywhere in the town of Detroit or even up the drainage. The flood of 1964 moved a lot of things; it even brought houses down. The lake was just covered with logs and debris back then.”

While Zahn said that he had heard many stories about Old Detroit during his 12 years working as a deputy in the area, and that he was thrilled to have an opportunity to see some artifacts from the settlement for himself, he added that he hoped it would be a long time before another opportunity like this presented itself. “Hopefully it will be another 40 years before Detroit’s this low again,” Zahn said.

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Image credit: Statesman Journal/Dave Zahn

 

Unusual hydrothermal vents are made of talc, study finds

Researchers from the University of Southampton have discovered a new type of hydrothermal vent that has an unusual structure unlike anything ever seen before, and according to a new study they were formed of primarily talc instead of the typical sulfide minerals.

Writing in a recent edition of the journal Nature Communications, postgraduate research student Matthew Hodgkinson from the university’s National Oceanography Centre Southampton and his colleagues explained that the newfound vents are unlike any active vent field ever discovered.

The vents discussed in the study were discovered in the Von Damm Vent Field (VDVF), south of the Cayman Islands, by scientists and the crew of the RRS James Cook in 2010. Between 85 and 90 percent of their composition by volume was of the silicate mineral, talc, they said.

“This vent site is home to a community of fauna similar to those found at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean,” Hodgkinson explained in a statement, “but the minerals and chemistry at the Von Damm site are very different to any other known vents.”

VDVF may not be the only vent field of its kind

Hydrothermal vents form in regions where tectonic plates spread, which causes magma below the seafloor to heat up circulating seawater and make it more acidic. As a result, the surrounding rocks are stripped of their metals, and those metals are then redeposited as the hot water flows out of “chimneys” or vents in the seabed and comes into contact with the cold seawater.

In the case of the VDVF system, there is also a energetic heat flux (the amount of energy emitted into the surrounding ocean) that reaches levels of about 500 megawatts—far more than an expert would expect, given that the VDVF is located on the slope of an underwater mountain and on the edge of a spreading area and not between two separating plates or near a large magma reserve.

The vent field’s unorthodox positioning indicates that the there may be other, similar features to be discovered elsewhere in the world, Hodgkinson said. If they do exist, he added, “they could be important contributors in the exchange of chemicals and heat between the Earth’s interior and the oceans, and may be missing from current global assessments of hydrothermal impact on the oceans.”

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Feature Image: Wikimedia Commons

Happy New Year! Let’s look back on the biggest space discoveries of 2015

Few things seem to capture the imagination of quite like astronomy and space exploration, and 2015 certainly was a banner year on that front. This New Year’s Day, we at redOrbit thought it would be a good idea to take a look back at the year’s most epic space achievements and news stories.

1. Mars has liquid water

Mars was certainly a hot topic throughout the past 12 months, with NASA making preparations to send astronauts to the Red Planet in the near future and the Curiosity rover still going strong on the its surface. The biggest Mars-related story of 2015, however, had to be the discovery of hydrated salts on the planet’s surface, providing new evidence of liquid water.

The hydrated salts were found in recurring slope lineae—or dark features of precipitated salt that can be up to five meters wide and as much as 100 meters long—and while scientists have not yet actually seen any H2O on present-day Mars, NASA called the paper, published in September in the journal Nature Geoscience, “the strongest evidence yet” that it is there.

2. Finding Pluto’s heart

Much farther out into the solar system, the US space agency’s New Horizon probe completed a close flyby of Pluto and its moons, passing within 8,000 miles of the dwarf planet in July. Since then, a wealth of information both about the distant world and the satellites orbiting it have been published in various scientific journals, and there’s still much more to come!

Among the many breakthroughs logged thus far: the identification of a heart-shaped feature that was named Tombaugh Regio in honor of the man who first discovered the planet; the discovery that Pluto is apparently geologically active, despite the belief that is had been dormant for many, many years; and the fact that it has a terrain unlike anything ever seen in our solar system.

Most recently, NASA released infrared images of the dwarf planet captured by New Horizons’ Linear Etalon Imaging Spectral Array (LEISA) that had been translated into real, visible color and then one-upped themselves by releasing an amazing video compilation of those pics—and since data and photos are set to come through summer, the best may be yet to come!

3. Ceres’ bright spots are made of salt

Like New Horizons, the US space agency’s Dawn spacecraft has been busy studying a dwarf planet—in this case, Ceres. One of the biggest puzzles of the year for space scientists was the nature of the mysterious bright spots on surface of Ceres. The answer came in last month, when NASA revealed that they were made of hexahydrite, a type of magnesium sulfate.

4. Most Earth-like world to date

The Kepler planet-hunting mission was also active throughout 2015, and in July, it located the most Earth-like world to date. That object was named Kepler-452b, and it was the first object of its kind to be roughly the same size as our homeworld while orbiting a sun-like G2 star at just the right distance for liquid water to be able to form on its surface.

5. Honorable mentions

Sadly, there just isn’t enough space here to give in-depth coverage to all of the really cool space research and discoveries that came over the past 12 months, so we’ll wrap things up with a look at some of our “honorable mentions,” including Scott Kelly and the Year In Space mission, the discovery of a global ocean on Saturn’s moon Enceladus by Cassini, and milestones in reusable rocket technology from both Blue Origin and SpaceX.

Need more? Check out our Space News page for more of 2015’s top stories!

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Feature Image: NASA/APL/SwRI

Mysterious Fast Radio Bursts are actually a great test of Einstein’s theory of General Relativity

Scientists from Penn State University and the Chinese Academy of Sciences have discovered a new way to test one of the key tenants of Einstein’s theory of General Relativity that they claim is between 10 and 100 times better than previous testing methods.

The new technique replaces techniques that utilized gamma-ray bursts with a new method which uses Fast Radio Bursts, extremely short blasts of energy that last only a few milliseconds and are likely caused by mysterious phenomenon occurring beyond the edge of the Milky Way, the team explains in research published this week in the journal Physical Review Letters.

The paper—which according to a press release was given “Editor’s Suggestion” honors from the journal for its “its particular importance, innovation, and broad appeal”—will be essential when it comes to analyzing the abundance of Fast Radio Bursts that advanced radio-signal observatories currently in the planning stages will be able to detect, according to the study’s authors.

“With abundant observational information in the future, we can gain a better understanding of the physical nature of Fast Radio Bursts,” said senior author Peter Mészáros, the Eberly Family Chair in Astronomy and Astrophysics and Professor of Physics at Penn State.

As is the case with other forms of electromagnetic radiation, Fast Radio Bursts make their way through space in the form of photon particle waves, and the number of wave crests arriving per second (also known as frequency) are in the same range as radio signals, Mészáros noted.

“When more-powerful detectors provide us with more observations, we also will be able to use Fast Radio Bursts as a probe of their host galaxies, of the space between galaxies, of the cosmic-web structure of the universe, and as a test of fundamental physics,” the study author added.

A ‘significant tribute’ to Einstein’s Equivalence Principle

As more of these bursts are observed, and provided their origins can be pinpointed, their impact is expected to increase significantly, the researchers explained. If they can be proved to originate from beyond the Milky Way and their distances can be precisely measured, they could provide a new, more powerful tool for putting Einstein’s Equivalence Principle to the test.

Einstein’s Equivalence Principle basically states that any pair of photons of different frequencies emitted at the same time, from the same source, and passing through the same gravitational fields should arrive at their destination at exactly the same time. If this is correct, any differences in the time it takes photons to reach Earth should not be due to gravitational fields they encounter.

“By measuring how closely in time the two different-frequency photons arrive, we can test how closely they obey Einstein’s Equivalence Principle,” said Mészáros. The technique his team came up with compares the amount of curvature the photons experienced due to massive objects on or close to the past they travel through space.

While they have only been able to study a handful of Fast Radio Bursts, they found that the ones they’ve analyzed so far “supersedes by one to two orders of magnitude the previous best limits on the accuracy of the Einstein Equivalence Principle,” the Penn State professor explained. “Our analysis using radio frequencies shows that the Einstein Equivalence Principle is obeyed to one part in a hundred million. This result is a significant tribute to Einstein’s theory.”

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Feature Image: An artist concept drawing of a magnetar, one of the proposed sources of a fast radio burst.
Credit: NASA

Here’s why the Chinese may never be able to fully populate Tibet

Depending on who you ask, anywhere from a few hundred thousand to upwards of seven million Han (ethnically Chinese) have immigrated into Tibet Autonomous Region since it was invaded by China in 1950—but according to an international team of researchers, these Han are having a hard time reproducing in the high altitudes there.

The issues surrounding Tibet and China are, of course, complicated. In regards to the 1950 invasion, the Chinese government claimed (among many other things) that since Tibet was part of the Qing dynasty in the 1600s, it was merely quelling a rebellious province, as well as liberating it from a feudal form of government. Tibetans generally claim that they were an independent nation, and that they were and still are undergoing cultural genocide at the hands of the Chinese government.

Given that there are hundreds (if not thousands) of years of history here, this is a vast oversimplification of the issue. Yet, in the midst of all the contention, one thing is clear: The Tibetans seems to be better at reproducing at higher altitudes than the Han, and Han women and infants are suffering because of it.

Which is where Dr. Lorna Moore, a researcher from the University of Colorado, Denver who specializes in the effects of altitude on pregnancy and birth, steps in. She and other colleagues have studied the difference between the reproduction of Han and Tibetans at high altitudes for years, and have found some very interesting results.

“[The Tibetans] have higher birth weights because the babies are growing more normally in utero,” Moore explained. “We think that’s a result of having greater blood flow to the uterine circulation. And babies who are more normal-sized at birth have a greater chance of survival postnatally.”

One of Moore’s more important papers on this subject, which can be found in American Journal of Human Biology, studied 452 babies delivered to Han and Tibetan parents living between the altitudes of 8,900 and 15,400 feet in the Tibet Autonomous Region. At birth, the babies’ weight, sex, and gestational age were recorded.

Later, the ethnicities of the parents were documented, with 377 births to Tibetan parents and 75 to two Han parents or one Han and one parent of various heritage (either Tibetan, Mei, Moinba, or mixed Tibetan-Han). Of the latter, 65 babies were born to two Han parents.

The health conditions of the parents, along with their previous pregnancies (there were 863) and births (734), were recorded as well—from which they calculated prenatal and postnatal mortality rates separate from those of the 452 babies delivered at the time of the study.

High Han?

Interestingly, the study discovered that not a single Han birth happened above 12,500 feet, whereas Tibetan births happened at all altitudes. In fact, most Han who lived above that altitude descended to lower altitudes during the pregnancy, where they stayed for several years. Reasons cited for the move included health—like increased risk of pre-eclampsia—and family, such as a desire to be closer to family in China. The families typically returned to the high altitude when the child was three or four years old, said Moore.

Incidentally, the incidence of pre-eclampsia is usually triple at high altitudes for most populations who haven’t spent thousands of years at such an elevation, but it’s unclear if this trend holds true for the Han due to a lack of data.

“The difficulty is, there are not systematic medical records that are maintained or have been evaluated,” explained Moore by phone. “So there’s no way of knowing what the denominator is. It’s known that there are cases of pre-eclampsia, but you can’t calculate an incidence.”

Han health hazards

Besides where the births were located and possible maternal health risks, the study found that birth weight for both populations was affected by altitude as well; it decreased as altitude increased. However, the magnitude of the decrease was drastically different between the two.

“The Tibetan birth weights are similar to sea level values,” said Dr. Moore. “Whereas the Han birthweights are much lower.”

In fact, the birth weight of Han infants declined 66 percent more than that of children born to Tibetan parents. The Tibetan children weighed an average of 310 grams (or around 2/3 of a pound) more than Han babies between 8,900 and 9,800 feet, and a whopping 530 grams (roughly 1 and 1/8 pounds) more between 9,800 and 12,500 feet.

Further, the study found that prenatal and postnatal mortality was greater in the Han than in the Tibetans across all altitudes.

Tibetan blood is better

As to why these groups differ so drastically, the difference is primarily due to the incidence of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR)—or a decreased growth rate of the baby inside the womb. IUGR itself is a result of genetics, as it appears that certain genes allow greater uterine blood flow and arterial oxygenation than normal at higher altitudes.

This notion was strengthened by one of Moore’s studies from this year, which is published in Pulmonary Circulation. When her team studied 30 Tibetan and Han infants born around 12,000 feet, the arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2) in the Tibetan infants was higher while awake or asleep. Whereas the Tibetan SaO2 values remained at 85 percent or above, the Han values fell below 70 percent.

As to what genes cause this difference, scientists have a few ideas. Indeed, according another of Dr. Moore’s papers, which is published in Physiological Genomics, the researchers identified 14 candidate regions of the Tibetan genome that may play a role in high-altitude birth adaptations.

Another paper published in Nature by separate researchers determined that Tibetans have a variant of a gene known as EPAS1, which regulates their levels of oxygen-toting hemoglobin. Their particular version of the gene apparently came from Denisovan ancestors—an extinct species of human that somewhat rarely interbred with Homo sapiens.

A small number of Han (perhaps one percent of the population) carry this rare variant of EPAS1, and it’s not likely to be the only gene at play that help the Tibetans alone survive the altitude—leading to intrauterine growth restriction in Han mothers. And it’s not likely they will be able to generate these genes any times soon, unless they have children with Tibetans.

“Any sort of natural selection processes that operated with the Tibetans would presumably operate with the Han, but we’re talking thousands of years,” said Moore.

“The only data that bears on that is in South America. Our studies (and others) have shown that the European-derived populations, despite having been there [at high altitudes in Bolivia] for 400 years, are still showing lower birth weights…In our Bolivian studies, where some of the European women in our sample had multiple generations of high-altitude ancestry, that number of generations didn’t seem to make any difference.”

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Feature Image: Marina & Enrique/Flickr

Remains of ancient Roman settlement in Spain are some of the most significant and pristine ever found

Ruins of an ancient Roman settlement—complete with some of the most significant and pristine remains from the empire ever discovered in Spain—have been unearthed by archaeologists at the site of the modern-day town of Jimena de la Frontera, according to BBC News.

The findings suggest that the settlement, which was originally discovered by Hamo Sassooon, a retired researcher who used to take daily walks to a local castle called the Castillo de Jimena de la Frontera, was a fairly significant city. Without his volunteer efforts it is unlikely that the settlement would have been discovered, archaeologists noted.

“If it weren’t for his acute observational powers,” expedition coordinator Juan Miguel Pajuelo told the BBC, “it is doubtful that we would have this opportunity to understand Oba, as Jimena was known between the first century BC and the third century AD.”

“At first sight the impression is of visiting an Arab castle, slightly altered in the 19th Century,” explained Miguel Angel Tabales, a professor of archaeology at the University of Seville who has been leading the excavations since 2002. “But the moment you… analyze what you are actually seeing you quickly realize that this… the remains of a very important Roman city.”

Walls, doors, towers and a temple found among the remains

The existence of a Libyan-Phoenican settlement at the site was confirmed by the discovery of a cache of bilingual coins marked with the name “OBA.” Once the region was conquered by Rome, the name was changed to Res Publica Obensis and declared a town governed by Latin law under the auspices of Emperor Vespasian. Afterwards, it was ruled by a local senate.

Some of the Roman-era remains discovered by the archaeologists include doors and towers, as well as hydraulic infrastructure designed specifically for the hilly region, a temple, and a handful of well-preserved walls, according to BBC News. In fact, Tabales said that most of the wall, which is part Roman and part Islamic in construction, remains intact.

“By superimposing this enclave on to the usual structure of a Roman city, we can see that the public zone, the initial forum and the main street start in the lower part of the city. This means the Romans adapted their original model to the topography of the site,” he said.

“The site was chosen because it gives commanding views of the surrounding countryside – an imperative for a military garrison. The monumental character of the architecture witnesses a time of great power and confidence,” Tabales added. “It added to Roman imperial propaganda.”

The city was governed by the Taifa kingdom of Seville starting in 1059, according to the BBC. It was seized by Christians in 1431, recaptured by Muslims, then conquered by the Castilians in the year 1456. The expedition is currently focusing on making the compound accessible, they added, but there are concerns over the stability of the ground on which the site is located.

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Feature Image: The Castillo de Jimena de la Frontera is the original settlement of Jimena containing traces of an ancient and multi-cultural history. Credit: Flickr

New book claims to have solved mystery of Amelia Earheart’s disappearance

She was the first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic ocean and set several other records before vanishing during an attempt to circumnavigate the globe in 1937, or so the Amelia Earhart story goes. But an upcoming new book tells a vastly different story.

According to Fox News and The Daily Mail, W.C. Jameson, author of the forthcoming book Amelia Earhart: Beyond the Grave, claims to have found evidence that the aviator had been on a secret spy mission over Japan when she either crashed or was shot down and taken prisoner.

She and navigator Fred Noonan were held by the Japanese until 1945, and upon her release from the POW camp, she assumed a new identity, Irene Craigmile Bolam. This was largely due to the fact that the Roosevelt administration did not want to admit that they had asked Earhart to participate in a spy mission, as well as the fact that there was no attempt made to rescue her.

Roosevelt feared that he would appear to be “incompetent” and a “coward” if the truth ever came out, Jameson said, especially since he allowed a beloved figure to remain imprisoned for an eight year span. Earhart returned to the US under her new name and lived until 1982, he added.

Eyewitness accounts, missing Coast Guard records cited as evidence

Earhart’s fate has been one of the predominant aviation mysteries for eight decades. Officially, she and Noonan were en route to Howland Island, 1,700 nautical miles southwest of Honolulu in the Pacific Ocean, when the US Coast Guard station there lost contact with her plane.

The duo purportedly ran out of fuel and crashed within 40 miles of Howland Island, possible due to storms in the area, and were killed, according to The Daily Mail. However, Jameson called the story “suspect” and “fraught with problems and errors” and said that this conclusion was reached “in spite of the fact that not a single shred of evidence exists to support it.”

The author further claims that Earhart’s plane had been equipped with special cameras designed to photograph Japanese military installations on islands in the Pacific Ocean, and that upon their crash, she and Noonan buried a box in the sand before they were captured. This box likely stored some kind of secret information or evidence about their espionage activities, he said.

Jameson said that evidence of this activity was “quite abundant”—adding that after she vanished, flight logs from the Coast Guard station that last communicated with her were tampered. He also interviewed the nephew of a former US Army official, who said that it was “well known within high ranking intelligence circles” that Earhart had been “involved in an intelligence-gathering operation… ordered at the request of the highest echelons of government.”

His theory is that she and Noonan were forced to land on the Milli Atoll in the Marshall Islands, which was occupied by Japanese forces at the time. Eyewitness accounts place the duo there and add that they were later transferred to a POW camp on the mainland. She was held there until August 17, 1945, when a woman identified as a nun was rescued. Jameson believes this woman was Earhart, and that she assumed the identity of Bolam upon her return to the US.

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Feature Image: Wikimedia

Another contagious form of cancer has been found in Tasmanian devils

Believe it or not, contagious forms of cancer exist, and while they are rare, scientists have found that one unfortunate creature is being threatened by not just one, but two different forms of these diseases, a new Proceedings of the National Academy of Science study has revealed.

The creature in question is the Tasmanian devil—a carnivorous marsupial found in the Australian island state from which it takes its name. Experts already knew that the fierce, dog-sized animals were susceptible to a type of transmissible cancer that can cause facial tumors, but the new study found a second form of contagious cancer that affects them as well.

Facial tumors were first discovered on Tasmanian devils in 1996, according to the University of Cambridge, when scientists found them around the mouth of marsupials in the northeastern part of the island. Shortly thereafter, they found that the cancer could be spread from one creature to another through biting—killing the infected within months of the first signs of symptoms.

Since then, the disease has spread throughout much of Tasmania, causing massive declines in the devil populations and forcing them the International Union for Conservation of Nature to declare them an endangered species in 2008. To date, transmissible cancer has only been detected in two other types of creatures: dogs and soft-shell clams.

Findings suggest transmissible cancer may not be so rare after all

Unfortunately for the Tasmanian devils, lightning has apparently struck twice, as scientists from Cambridge and the University of Tasmania has identified a second type of contagious cancer that is genetically distinct but visibly indistinguishable from the previously discovered form.

According to first author Dr. Ruth Pye from the University of Tasmania’s Menzies Institute for Medical Research, the disease has been detected in eight devils in southeastern Tasmania thus to date, and co-senior author Dr. Elizabeth Murchison of the Department of Veterinary Medicine at Cambridge added that the discovery has them second-guessing the rarity of contagious cancer.

“Previously, we thought that Tasmanian devils were extremely unlucky to have fallen victim to a single runaway cancer that emerged from one individual devil and spread through the devil population by biting,” Dr. Murchison explained in a statement. “However, now that we have discovered that this has happened a second time, it makes us wonder if Tasmanian devils might be particularly vulnerable to developing this type of disease, or that transmissible cancers may not be as rare in nature as we previously thought.”

“It’s possible that in the Tasmanian wilderness there are more transmissible cancers in Tasmanian devils that have not yet been discovered. The potential for new transmissible cancers to emerge in this species has important implications for Tasmanian devil conservation programs,” added co-senior Professor Gregory Woods, also from the Menzies Institute.

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Feature Image: Thinkstock

Congress to NASA: Build a deep space habitat by 2018

The omnibus spending bill recently passed by Congress earmarks at least $55 million dollars in funds for NASA to build a deep-space habitat that will aid the US space agency with its ultimate goal of sending astronauts to Mars.

According to SpaceNews and Popular Science, the ambitious but not ambitiously named Deep Space Habitat would be a “habitation augmentation module” that would provide crew members with private quarters and exercise equipment for use during extended space flight missions.

Given the relatively small size of the Orion spacecraft that will be used to ferry NASA personnel to the Red Planet, a larger living space will allow them to take galactic pit-stops would likely be welcome, but reports indicate the project is still essentially in the planning stages.

Little progress to report thus far

Nonetheless, Congress has challenged NASA to figure it out, and to have a working prototype of whatever space habitat concept they come up with ready by 2018. Provided they can pull that off, the agency would test it out around the moon sometime in the 2020s—then use it to get to Mars in the 2030s.

The spending bill also requires that NASA provide Congress with a report on the progress of the program and how the funds have been spent within 180 days of it becoming law. To date, NASA has not detailed exactly how it plans to use the funding, and earlier this month, ISS director Sam Scimemi told SpaceNews that he was not aware of any immediate plans for the money.

When pressed for details, Scimemi said that it was “much too early” to go into detail about how the agency will develop its habitation module, or even what equipment and technologies will be required to operate such a facility. “As soon as I put a picture up there,” he added, “somebody is going to assume what the configuration is.” So for now, space enthusiasts must wait.

Can they make their 2018 deadline? Popular Science seems skeptical, noting that one of the big challenges they face will be to develop a module that can protect astronauts from space radiation without making the habitat too heavy. The current frontrunner appears to be an inflatable habitat built by Bigelow Aerospace that will soon be tested on the space station, they added.

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Feature Image: Inspiration Mars

Tortoise fossils provide clues on the rise of Andes Mountains

The discovery of tortoise fossils on a massive, arid plateau in the Andes mountains in southern Bolivia indicates that the area was once no more than one kilometer above sea level, researchers from Case Western Reserve University revealed Tuesday in a statement.

A team led by Case Western anatomy professor and paleomammalogist Darin Croft discovered what turned out to be the fossil remains of the five-foot-long tortoise, as well as pieces of a tinier aquatic turtle, at the Altiplano plateau near what is bow the town of Quebrada Honda.

It marked the first time that turtle fossils dating back to the Miocene epoch have been found in Bolivia, the researchers said, and their discovery indicates that the plateau was far closer to sea level some 13 million years ago than the currently projected 2.0 to 3.2 kilometers.

Furthermore, the findings, which have been detailed in the latest edition of the Journal of South American Earth Sciences, offer a closer look into historical climate change caused by mountains rising, and could also help experts better understand the changes to modern-day climate.

Cold-blooded creatures could not have survived at higher evelations

According to Croft, the tortoise remains were discovered thanks to a fortuitous accident: He saw them in an embankment after making a wrong turn near Quebrada Honda and trying to get back to his regular research site. He and a colleague also later identified additional, more fragmented tortoise remains from other nearby sites.

Upon his return to the US, Croft send photos and 3D computer-generated images to turtle expert Edwin Cadena, now with Ecuador’s Yachay Tech University. Cadena discovered that the tortoise was a member of Chelonoidis, the same genus Galápagos tortoise, and that the smaller turtle was part of the genus Acanthochelys, which includes many South America turtles.

The creatures were cold-blooded, meaning that they relied on the outside air to control their body temperatures, and were likely physiologically similar to their modern relatives, which can’t live at higher altitudes because of the extreme cold, Croft said. This seems to suggest that the Andes, which were formed by subduction, had not reached their current elevation by this time.

He and his colleagues also found additional evidence to support their claims that the mountains were less than one kilometer high during the late Miocene—including the fossil remains of a large snake in the same rock layer as the turtles. If this is the case, it means that the Andes would have had far less on an impact on global air circulation patterns than they would have had they been closer to their current height.

“We’re trying to understand how tectonic plate activity and changing climate affected species diversity in the past… Mountains create many different climates and ecosystems in a small area, which promotes speciation,” Croft said in a report on Phys.org. “With current global climate change, we’d like to have a better idea of what to expect under different scenarios – how 1-degree warming or 2-degree warming will affect sea levels and animals.”

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Feature Image: Darin Croft

NASA cancels 2016 InSight Mars mission due to leaky instrument

NASA’s InSight Mission—which had been scheduled to lift off in March 2016 and study the interior of the Red Planet—has been delayed after US space agency officials determined that a leak in one of the rover’s primary instruments could not be fixed in time.

According to Ars Technica and The Independent, the affected instrument was set to measure the seismic activity on the planet, and needed to maintain a vacuum seal around its three sensors to function properly. Unfortunately, on three separate occasions this year, the 22 centimeter sphere that creates that vacuum sprung a leak—and each time efforts to fix the issue failed.

Last week, NASA officials confirmed the existence of a fourth leak, and it was determined that there just wasn’t enough time to fix the issue in time for the March launch window. The mission will now be delayed until at least May 2018 as NASA and the French outfit that built the device, the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES), review their data and determine the next step.

If they are unable to guarantee that the vacuum can be fixed to ensure that there will be no more leaks, that the repairs can be completed in time, and that the costs are not exorbitant, InSight may eventually be sent to Mars. There is a chance that the mission could wind up being permanently cancelled, however.

Team members confident that the necessary repairs can be made

In a statement, John Grunsfeld, associate administrator for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, said that learning more about Mars’ interior has been “a high priority objective” for scientists at the agency “since the Viking era.” However, he added, “space exploration is unforgiving, and the bottom line is that we’re not ready to launch in the 2016 window.”

The relative positions of both Earth and Mars limit the most favorable conditions for launches to the Red Planet to just a few weeks every 26 months, according to the US space agency. InSight’s 2016 window lasted from just March 4 through March 30, and with repairs unable to be finished by then, Grunsfeld said a decision regarding the mission’s future would be “made in the coming months.”

“It’s the first time ever that such a sensitive instrument has been built,” said Marc Pircher, Director of CNES’s Toulouse Space Centre. Pircher seemed confident that the issue would ultimately be resolved, noting that his team and colleagues at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California were “close to succeeding.” While he vowed that they would “find a solution to fix it,” he added that such a solution would not come in time to launch by the end of March.

“The JPL and CNES teams and their partners have made a heroic effort to prepare the InSight instrument, but have run out of time given the celestial mechanics of a launch to Mars,” added JPL Director Charles Elachi. “It is more important to do it right than take an unacceptable risk.”

After all, as NASA Planetary Sciences director Jim Green noted, the Curiosity rover suffered a similar delay, and that turned out just fine in the end.

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Feature Image: NASA’s InSight lander. Credit: Lockheed Martin/NASA

Scientists find primordial protein fragments that existed billions of years ago

Utilizing a technique similar to that used to reconstruct ancient vocabularies by comparing them to modern languages, researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology have identified primordial protein fragments that existed billion of years ago.

As they explained in a recent issue of the journal eLife, Andrei Lupas, director of the Department of Protein Evolution at the Institute, and his colleagues were able to reconstruct 40 ancient pieces of peptides by using computational methods to compare them to modern-day proteins.

These peptidic fragments may represent the observable remains of the time during which the first proteins were created—which would have occurred more than 3.5 billon years ago. Their findings may shed new light on how the building blocks of all life originally came into existence.

Research could lead to designer proteins, researchers claim

“Life,” Lupas explained Monday in a statement, “can be viewed as substantially resulting from the chemical activity of proteins.” Proteins are the basic building blocks of all living things, from people on down to microbes. In humans, they form our hair, nails, bones, and muscles, defend us from pathogens and even help digest the food we consume, the authors said.

But how did they come to be in the first place? Scientists known that proteins are comprised of thousands of modular units called domains assembled together, yet the origin of these fragments themselves remain uncertain. The researchers set out to investigate on hypothesis: that the first of these domains arose by fusion from an ancient set of simple peptides.

During their analysis, Lupas and his fellow investigators identified 40 peptidic fragments which occur in proteins that do not appear to be related, but which are strikingly similar in structure and sequences. These fragments were abundant in the most ancient types of proteins and were found to be involved with base RNA and DNA-binding functions, leading the study authors to suggest that they are remnants from a world that predates the existence of DNA-based life.

The researchers believe that future studies will need to examine the role these fragments play in the formation of protein structures, and that the results could ultimately help lead to the creation of new forms of protein, as well as the enhancement of existing ones.

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Feature Image: MPI for Developmental Biology/ Vikram Alva

Marble ram statue discovered in Caesarea may have represented Christ, experts say

A ram statue discovered by archaeologists during the excavation of a Byzantine-era church in Caesarea Harbor National Park on Christmas Eve may have intended as a representation of the Christian messiah Jesus, the Israel Antiquities Authority announced on Sunday.

As the IAA explained, Christian artists often show the ram being carried on the shoulders of the “Good Shepherd,” a term coined to describe how Jesus cares for his followers or his “flock.” The ram is often used to either depict either those followers, or Jesus himself, they added.

It has also appeared in Roman art, alongside the Greek gods Mercury and Hermes, and was also used to represent the god Amun in Egyptian mythology, according to the archaeologists. The ram statue is made out of marble and may be up to 1,500 years old, the Christian Post said.

IAA archaeologist Dr. Peter Gendelman told Tazpit Press Service (TPS) that the discovery was “very interesting” and that “its level and status of preservation are quite rare.” He added that it is “possible” that it was “a decoration in a 6th or 7th century Byzantine church in Caesarea.”

Statue could also have been linked to Greek, Egyptian gods

In a statement released along with fellow IAA archaeologist Mohammad Hater, Dr. Gendelman explained that the ancient Christian did not portray Jesus as a person, but used symbols such as the ram and the lamb instead. He said that it “may or may not” be a coincidence that they found the statue on Christmas Eve, but also admitted that it may date back to the Roman era.

“We know that Christianity adopted the lamb as a symbol of Jesus so it could very well be associated with the Christian community,” he told TPS, adding that Caesarea was “one of the centers of Christianity in the Holy Land” and that Cornelius, the Roman officer said to be the first gentile to convert to Christianity, hailed from that region.

The ram statue follows another discovery from earlier this month that was also of interest to Christians, according to the Christian Post: the discovery of Hebrew inscriptions on a slab of marble on the shores of Lake Kinneret. The marble slab is believed to be 1,500 years old and indicates that early Christians or Jews once inhabited the ancient village of Kursi.

Kursi, the publication explained, is thought to be the town where the Bible said that Jesus had driven out demons from a pair of possessed men and sent them into a herd of pigs. The research team behind the discovery said that the artifact was “the first indication that there was a Jewish presence” in Kuris, and “ reinforces the belief” that it was “where Jesus performed the ‘Miracle of the Swine.’ ”

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Feature Image: Vered Sarig, The Caesarea Development

Ancient Irish genomes sequenced by researchers for first time ever

By sequencing the genomes of four different ancient Irish men and women from different eras, researchers from Trinity College Dublin and Queen’s University Belfast have found evidence of mass migration that likely explains historical lifestyle transitions in the British Isles.

In research published Monday in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Trinity College population genetics professor Dan Bradley and his colleagues said that they sequenced the genome of an early female farmer who lived near Belfast about 5,200 years ago, along with three men from the Bronze Age, approximately 4,000 years ago.

They found that the farmer was primarily of Middle Eastern ancestry, which is where agriculture was invented, and that the genomes of the three Bronze Age men were different, with nearly one-third of their ancestry coming from ancient sources in the Pontic Steppe.

irish genomes

This is a reconstruction of the Ballynahatty Neolithic skull by Elizabeth Black. Her genes tell us she had black hair and brown eyes. (Credit: Barrie Hartwell)

Clear evidence of mass migration in the British Isles found

Based on these findings, the authors believe there is clear evidence that the transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, to a farming-based one, then to one centered around metal and stone use was due to the influx of new peoples through migration, and not solely due to the adoption of new lifestyles by locals already settled in the area.

“There was a great wave of genome change that swept… from above the Black Sea into Bronze Age Europe and we now know it washed all the way to the shores of its most westerly island,” said Bradley. “This degree of genetic change invites the possibility of other associated changes, perhaps even the introduction of language ancestral to western Celtic tongues.”

“It is clear that this project has demonstrated what a powerful tool ancient DNA analysis can provide in answering questions which have long perplexed academics regarding the origins of the Irish,” added Dr Eileen Murphy, an osteoarchaeologist from Queen’s University Belfast.

The team also found that the early farmer had black hair and brown eyes, while the three men from the Bronze Age had the most common Irish Y chromosome type, blue eye alleles and the C282Y mutation, a gene variant that is frequently found Irish people that is responsible for the condition haemochromatosis. This discovery marks the first ever identification of a key disease variant in prehistory, the researchers noted.

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Feature Image: Excavated near Belfast in 1855, she had lain in a Neolithic tomb chamber for 5,000 years; subsequently curated in Queens University Belfast. (Credit: Daniel Bradley, Trinity College Dublin)

Rare encounter with giant squid caught on video in Japan

A fisherman at one Japanese marina got quite a surprise as he prepared to cast off on Thursday morning, spotting a rare 12-foot giant squid swimming beneath boats docked at the facility, and best of all, the entire incident was caught on video.

According to the Wall Street Journal and the Daily Mail, the encounter occurred at Mizuhashi Fisherina in Toyama prefecture, located approximately 250 kilometers northwest of Tokyo, and featured a 3.7 meter (12.1 foot), orange-and-white colored Architeuthis squid.

“It was the first time that we saw a live giant squid here, where water depth is only about 2.5 to 3 meters,” marina manager Tatsuya Wakasugi told the Journal. While he noted that more than a dozen giant squids had been captured in the Toyama Bay this year, all of them had already died or were close to death, with the color of their bodies having turned white.

The squid observed on Christmas Eve had a few scratches on its head, Wakasugi said. While it is unclear why it originally wandered into the marina, as sea and weather conditions were said to be fair, it remained there for several hours and seven swam alongside divers before ultimately being led back out into deeper waters.

Not the biggest squid out there, but impressive nonetheless

The creature was identified as a rare Architeuthis squid after the video of it was posted on social media, according to the Daily Mail. The newspaper noted that these squids can grow to be up to 13 long, making them the longest known to scientists, and weigh as much as 600 pounds.

While the Architeuthis squid, which typically lives an average of five years and reproduces only once during its lifetime, is the longest known squid, it is not necessarily the biggest, according to the Washington Post. That honor goes to the colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni), which scientists have found to grow as large as 750 kilograms, or 1,650 pounds.

Regardless, the rare sighting of the majestic creature was enough to convince some onlookers to jump into the waters in an attempt to get closer to it, including one man who told CNN.com that his curiosity “was way bigger” than his fear. He added that the creature “looked lively” and that it was “spurting ink and trying to entangle his tentacles around me.”

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Feature Image: Screenshot from YouTube

Gonorrhea could soon become untreatable, experts say

Gonorrhea’s growing resistance to antibiotics could make the sexually transmitted disease nearly untreatable in the near future, a top UK health official advised doctors in a recent letter.

According to The Independent and the New York Daily News, a new strain of the disease dubbed “super gonorrhea” that is resistant to ceftriaxone and azithromycin—the antibiotics regularly used to treat patients—has started to surface over the past few months.

Reports indicate that the outbreaks started in Leeds before spreading to other regions of England, and all cases reported to date have been transmitted through heterosexual intercourse. Experts warn that due to this strain’s antibiotic resistance, it is currently virtually untreatable.

In light of the spread of “super gonorrhea”, chief British medical officer Dame Sally Davies sent a letter to general practioners and pharmacists to verify that they are providing patients with both ceftriaxone and azithromycin, not just one or the other.

‘Extremely important’ that both drugs are prescribed, Davies said

The new strain is resistant to the azithromycin component of the treatment, which is what makes it so difficult to treat, The Independent explained. Unless both drugs are administered together, gonorrhea can develop a resistance to the medicine being taken by the patient, which is how the disease managed to become resistant to azithromycin in the first place.

“Gonorrhea is at risk of becoming an untreatable disease due to the continuing emergence of antimicrobial resistance,” Davies wrote, according to the Guardian“Gonorrhea has rapidly acquired resistance to new antibiotics, leaving few alternatives to the current recommendations. It is therefore extremely important that suboptimal treatment does not occur.”

In September, British Association for Sexual Health and HIV reported that at least 16 cases of the so-called “super-gonorrhea” have been detected by Public Health England since March, and earlier this year, UK media reports found that seven online pharmacies were only selling half of the two-antibiotic treatments (the azithromycin portion) to their customers.

“Investigations are ongoing into a number of cases of antimicrobial resistant gonorrhea, these are seen from time to time around the country and those affected have been effectively treated with alternative antibiotics,” Dr Andrew Lee, PHE’s consultant in communicable disease control, told the Guardian. “We know that the bacterium that cause gonorrhea can mutate and develop new resistance, so we cannot afford to be complacent.”

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Feature Image: Thinkstock

Record-setting haul of gold coins found in Chinese Han Dynasty tomb

Already the largest cache of gold coins ever discovered in a single Han Dynasty tomb, the haul discovered at the burial ground in east China got a little bigger last week, as archaeologists were able to find an additional 68 artifacts on Friday, according to published reports.

As the Xinhua news agency explained, the newfound gold—which includes 20 thin plates roughly 22 centimeters long and 10 centimeters wide—bring the number of objects discovered at the tomb to a total of 378. The gold coins, most of which weigh approximately 250 grams, were recovered from the tomb of the first “Haihunhou” (Marquis of Haihun) in Nanchang City.

The site dates back to the Western Han Dynasty, a period spanning from 206 BC to 24 AD, and according to the Daily Mail, it consists of eight tombs and a chariot burial site. Researchers have been studying it for five years, during which time they have recovered Wuzhu bronze coins, jade, and thousands of other gold, bronze, and iron items.

Other artifacts discovered include bronze lamps, horse-drawn chariots

Reports indicate that the tomb is believed to have belonged to Liu He, grandson of Emperor Wu. Liu would have been given the title Haihunhou after he was deposed as emperor just 27 days into his reign, Xinhua said. With a surface area of some 40,000 square meters, it is believed to be the most complete cemetery from the Western Han Dynasty to ever be discovered.

Since 2011, more than 10,000 artifacts have reportedly been discovered within the tombs at this burial site. In addition to the gold, other items unearthed so far include a portrait of Confucius, a distiller, a board game, 2,000-year-old bronze lamps, and nearly 3,000 wooden tables.

The lamps, which were goose-shaped, would likely have been filled with water and used to clear out smoke inside the tomb, the Daily Mail explained. Hoof-shaped ingots and jade pendants were also among the thousands of items recovered during the ongoing expedition, 110 of which are on display at the Jiangxi Provincial Museum in Nanchang.

Furthermore, China Daily reported that several horse-drawn vehicles were found, along with the sacrificed remains of the four horses used to pull each and at least 3,000 accessories embellished with gold and silver. Archaeologist Xin Lixiang told the news outlet that vehicles pulled by four horses were only used by the highest-ranking elite members of the Han Dynasty.

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Feature Image: Thinkstock

The ‘Hong Kong’ of ancient Egypt has been discovered on the Nile Delta

Once believed to be a small town on the Nile Delta, the now-sunken city of Naukratis actually was once a major Greek trading center in ancient Egypt, an expedition led by researchers from the British Museum has revealed.

Let by curator Dr. Ross Thomas, the excavation efforts resulted in the discovery of well over 10,000 ancient artifacts, including wood from Greek sailing vessels and Egyptian figurines that were crafted to honor a “festival of drunkenness,” The Guardian reported on Saturday.

hong kong

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

According to the museum’s website, at least 17,000 objects have been discovered at Naukratis since the late 19th century and are currently on display at museums worldwide. Objects from the 7th century BC to the 7th century AD, and including Roman and Cypriot items as well as Greek and Egyptian ones, have reportedly been discovered there.

Based on the “wide variety” of artifacts recovered at the site, Dr. Thomas told The Guardian that the city was likely home to a vast network of commerce. Once believed to be a fairly small town, it now appears as though Naukratis was actually “the Hong Kong of its era,” he added.

Naukratis was actually twice as big as previously believed

While its existence was known through ancient sources, the actual location of Naukratis was first discovered in 1884 by British archaeologist Sir Flinders Petrie, according to Quartz. The city has been visited by expeditions many times over the years, and for a while, it seemed as though there were no more secrets to be discovered at the site.

However, the latest excavation by Dr. Thomas and his colleagues found that the city was actually twice as big as previously thought, and that only a fraction of it had been explored. Once thought to be just 30 hectares in size and completely destroyed, the British Museum-led expedition found that it is actually 60 hectares big and home to yet undiscovered artifacts.

The discovery of wood from Greek ships confirms that the vessels were able to travel well into Egypt, and did not have to stop along the Mediterranean coast to transfer their cargo onto barges as previously believed, the researchers told The Guardian. Their expedition also opened up the location of the city’s harbor and the sites of a pair of Greek temples.

According to Dr. Thomas, the newly recovered evidence also revealed that Naukratis “was populated with tall tower houses that commonly had three to six stories. These are similar in construction to those found to this day in Yemen. We should imagine a mud-brick Manhattan, populated with tall houses and large sanctuaries, befitting a large cosmopolitan city.”

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Feature Image: Artist’s drawing of the sacred way and Ptolemaic pylon of the sanctuary of Amun-Ra at Naukratis. (Credit: Kate Morton/British Museum)

Norovirus is on the rise in California, officials say

California health officials say that “winter vomiting disease” is on the rise this season, with 32 confirmed cases of the disease seen since October 1, the LA Times reports.
In comparison, only nine cases had been reported by this time last year.
A highly contagious pathogen, the winter vomiting disease, or “norovirus”, causes vomiting as well as other related symptoms like abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea, according to the source.
Stay clean everyone
Officials say that the spread of the virus can be easily prevented in the same way as most pathogens—washing your hands.
“One of the most important things you can do to avoid norovirus and other illnesses this holiday season is to wash your hands frequently with soap and running water for at least 20 seconds,” says Karen Smith, director of the California Department of Public Health and a state public health officer. “This is especially important after using the bathroom, changing diapers, and before preparing or eating food.”
She also warns that hand sanitizer isn’t effective at killing the norovirus.
Dr. William Schaffner, an infectious disease specialist at Vanderbilt University’s School of Medicine, says that the virus enters the body, latches onto mucosal cells lining the digestive system, and renders them unable to absorb needed fluids, causing diarrhea.
The LA Times reports that nursing homes, long-term care facilities, and schools are the most affected by the disease, which displays symptoms that begin within 12 to 48 hours of exposure to the virus and that last for as much as three days.
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Image credit: Thinkstock

Ancient Romans drew penises on everything, and here’s why

Penis depictions are alive and well in America, whether in all-boys-Catholic-school graffiti or a bachelorette party’s baked goods. Usually, though, the social accepted-ness stops there, right at those specific kinds of situations. You wouldn’t walk into a neighbor’s house and be greeted by a phallus statue, or paint a mural of one in your bedroom. (Well…usually. We can’t speak for everyone.)

Ancient Rome, though, held back no penis punches. There were graffiti scratchings, carvings, mosaics, frescoes, statues, wind chimes, necklaces, and more featuring everyone’s favorite third leg. And they were found everywhere, from the brothels to around a child’s neck.

For example, in Pompeii, penises have been found carved into the streets, pointing to the nearest brothel:

penises

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Young boys were given amulets known as bulla, which included a fascinum—a phallus amulet meant to grant protection[i]. Soldiers wore fascina as well[ii].

Penises

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

There are plenty of frescoes, too. Like this one of the god Priapus weighing his member against a sack of gold, from the entryway of the House of the Vetii, Pompeii:

penis painting

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

And of course there were loads of graffiti penises and graphic writings all throughout Pompeii. This one below was written to a woman named Thyas, and reads “Thyas, don’t love Fortunatus. Goodbye.”

Penis graffiti

Credit: Wikimedia commons

And this carved going into a Pompeiian theater:

penis4

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

 

They were even found on some controversial coins/tokens known as spintriae:

penises

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Obviously, penis depictions were far more acceptable in the public sphere than they are now—and they were everywhere. But why? What’s the difference?

It’s hard to categorize a culture that spanned over 1,000 years, but there are many attitudes that were generally true across the years. Probably the most important distinction is the general attitude towards sex and nudity in ancient Rome. Instead of sex being a fairly stigmatized, shameful act, it was a well-accepted and occasionally encouraged facet of life.

For example, male and female prostitution was legal for nearly the entire length of the empire. And it was normal to have regular sex (unless you were a virgin woman) or for men to have sex outside their marriage (with men or other women[iii]).

Indeed, sex generally only became an issue if you couldn’t exercise the proper level of self-control over your desires and became hypersexual, which could indicate that you were unfit to govern others[iv] or were uncultured[v].

Further, when the Roman population had dipped too low, Emperor Augustus made it a high honor for men to have three male offspring[vi], and instituted laws such as the Lex Julia and Lex Papia Poppaea, which provided tax breaks for those who had a certain number of children, and granted men with larger families preferential treatment when applying for public office. Penalties were struck against those who failed to comply[vii].

This new emphasis on children can be seen in Augustus’ Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), a monument dedicated on his wife’s birthday that actually features images of their children—an incredibly rare feature on Roman art up until that time.

penis5

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Lastly, male nudity was far more common across the empire, as it was necessary for certain religious practices[viii] and athletic competitions[ix].

Because of this lack of stigma, certain images—like penises, or images of various sexual acts—were prevalent throughout Pompeii and the Roman world, where even children were exposed to them.

But more than that, penises had different connotations outside of the sexual. They were often a source of humor in images and writings[x]—much like today—but they also could represent luck, protection, fertility, and guidance[xi].

In fact, the phallus was seen to be protective against the evil eye and to bring prosperity and luck—hence children and soldiers wore them as amulets in the form of fascina. Fascina were also fashioned into windchimes, known as tintinnabula, which were believed to protect and grant fortune to homes. (The bells attached to the penises were seen as protective as well, and were tied to religious use[xii].)

penis6

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Penises were tied to certain gods. For example, Greek Hermes (who served as the god of boundaries) was often carved into boundary stones and signposts known as herma, which featured his head and genitals[xiii]. Romans adapted the same practice for their equivalent god, Mercury:

penises

Credit: British Museum

But even more heavily tied to phalluses was the deity Priapus, who was a god of fertility and male genitalia. Famously, he has an enormous, permanent erection—which is now called priapism in his honor.

Like before, his phallus was seen to avert the evil eye and grant good luck[xiv], but he was also seen as a god of navigation—and his penis was a guiding force. Naturally, this made him popular among mariners, but his penis was also used in domestic setting to point people in certain directions[xv]. As indicated in the famous collection of poems to Priapus, the Priapaea, it seems statues of Priapus used his penis to guide people to certain features of a town, like a fountain:

Falce minax et parte tui maiore, Priape,

ad fontem, quaeso, dic mihi qua sit iter.

(“Priapus, terrific with thy sickle and thy

greater part, tell me, prithee, which is the

way to the fountain?”)

This may add a second explanation to why phalluses were used to point out brothels (besides the obvious).

penis7

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Penises were also tied to healing magic; votive offerings (vota) in the form of penises have been discovered at various Roman healing sanctuaries, like these ones discovered at Pompeii:

penis8

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

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Feature Image: Wikimedia Commons

[i] Pliny, Natural History 28.29; Varro, De lingua latina7.97; Barbara Kellum, “Concealing/Revealing: Gender and the Play of Meaning in the Monuments of Augustan Rome,” in The Roman Cultural Revolution (Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 166.

[ii] Henig, Religion in Roman Britain, p. 176; Portable Antiquities Scheme, cat num: LIN-2BE126, http://finds.org.uk/database/search/results/q/LIN-2BE126.

[iii] Amy Richlin, The Garden of Priapus: Sexuality and Aggression in Roman Humor (Oxford University Press, 1983, 1992), p. 225.

[iv] Catharine Edwards, “Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome,” in Roman Sexualities, pp. 67–68.

[v] Edwards, “Unspeakable Professions,” p. 68.

[vi] “The Romans: From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire” by M. Boatwright, et al. 2nd edition. 2011.

[vii] Neurath, Paul (1994). From Malthus to the Club of Rome and Back. M.E. Sharpe. p. 7. ISBN 9781563244070.

[viii] Plutarch, Life of Caesar 61:1.

[ix] Crowther, “Nudity and Morality: Athletics in Italy,” pp. 119–121.

[x] David Fredrick, The Roman Gaze: Vision, Power, and the Body (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), p. 156.

[xi] Amy Richlin, “Pliny’s Brassiere,” in Roman Sexualities, p. 215.

[xii] Duncan Fishwick, Imperial Cult in the Latin West (Brill, 1990), vol. II.1, pp. 504-5.

[xiii] Paus. vii. 22. § 2; Aristoph. Plut. 1121, 1144; Hom. Od. xiv. 435, xix. 397; Athen. i. p. 16.

[xiv] Clarke, John R. Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art, 100 B. C. – A. D. 250. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1998.

[xv] Neilson III, Harry R. 2002. “A terracotta phallus from Pisa Ship E: more evidence for the Priapus deity as protector of Greek and Roman navigators.” The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 31.2: 248-253.

Precision Weight Loss: Using genetics to help you lose weight

Meet the next big advance in dieting and weight loss, as predicted by health experts: “precision weight loss.” In the future, according to a new report published in the aptly-named journal Obesity, experts hope to use personal genetic data to customize diets and physical activity plans, hopefully resulting in successful weight loss treatment.
“I think within five years, we’ll see people start to use a combination of genetic, behavioral, and other sophisticated data to develop individualized weight management plans,” said Molly Bray, a geneticist and professor of nutritional sciences at the University of Texas at Austin.
The “precision weight loss” plan
By collecting a variety of information via saliva samples for gene sequencing and automated sensors detecting environment, diet, activity, and stress, researchers hope to analyze these factors to create an individualized plan of dietary recommendations.
The plans will be relatively low-cost—with the falling costs of genome sequencing matched with the rising use of portable monitors to track real-time information (your Fitbit falls into this category), scientists already have a plethora of information access to the information they need for further research– the only problem lies in data analysis.
“We are pretty good at helping people lose weight in the short term,” Bray continued. “But the stats on long-term weight loss are pretty dismal. We still don’t understand the process of weight regain very well, either from a behavioral or a biological standpoint.”
It’s more than just the genes
While researchers previously discovered the connection of an “obesity gene” causing energy to be stored rather than burned, Bray warns that this gene isn’t as simple as it looks.
“When you go back and see how much of the variation in this gene accounts for the variation in body size in the general population, it’s really small,” Bray said. “So that highlights that there are going to be several genes involved with obesity, and they’re going to interact with each other in complicated ways. And that’s certainly true of weight loss and maintenance too.”
“Obesity is one of the gravest problems of our times,” said Bray. “Obviously prevention would be the best approach, but there are literally millions of individuals who are currently obese and are in dire need of more effective strategies for long-term weight loss that will ultimately improve overall health.”
So obesity doesn’t exist in the obesity gene alone—research projects have shown it’s a combination of factors concerning genetics and environment, including diet and exercise.
“When people hear that genes may be playing a role in their weight loss success, they don’t say, ‘Oh great, I just won’t exercise any more,’” said Bray. “They actually say, ‘Oh thank you. Finally, someone acknowledges that it’s harder work for me than it is for others.’ And then I think they’re a little more forgiving of themselves, and they’re more motivated to make a change.”
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Image credit: Thinkstock

Study shows IBS might be linked to Vitamin D deficiency

Bring out the sunblock and the vitamin packs because a new study published in BMJ Open Gastroenterology shows a large amount of people living with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) may actually be vitamin D deficient.

As the first of its kind, the study found a significant association between the patient’s vitamin D levels and the severity of their IBS, especially with how it effects their quality of life.

What is IBS?

IBS is a chronic and debilitating functional disorder of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract that affects around 10-15 percent of the western world. While little is known about its origins, we do know that dietary choices and stress can make IBS symptoms worse.

“IBS is a poorly understood condition which impacts severely on the quality of life of sufferers. There is no single known cause and likewise no single known cure,” said Bernard Corfe, study leader from the University of Sheffield’s molecular gastroenterology research group.

“Clinicians and patients currently have to work together and use trial and error to manage the condition and this may take years with no guarantee of success,” he continued.

Vitamin D is key

In the study, researchers found that 82 percent of the 51 IBS patients tested had insufficient vitamin D levels.

“It was clear from our findings that many people with IBS should have their vitamin D levels tested, and the data suggests that they may benefit from supplementation with vitamin D,” Corfe said.

So if you’re embarrassed about your symptoms, clear the air and talk to your doctor—there may be help in your future.

“As a result of this exploratory study, we’re now able to design and justify a larger and more definitive clinical trial,” Corfe continued. “Our data provide a potential new insight into the condition and importantly a new way to try to manage it.”

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Image credit: Thinkstock

Plus-sized models in advertising may be linked to growing rates of obesity, study says

This one’s for the record books—and the fashion magazines—as a new study published by the American Marketing Association’s Journal of Public Policy & Marketing has found that increasing the use of plus-sized models in advertising campaigns may actually be contributing to the growing rates of obesity.

The somewhat ironic study, coming out of Simon Fraser University’s Beedie School of Business, found that the increased presence of non-traditional models with larger body types and the decreased presence of ultrathin and aesthetically flawless models can negatively effect society’s lifestyle and eating behavior.

Obesity as socially acceptable

Looking closer at these fashion trends’ newest effect, researchers conducted five experiments studying how subjects would react to cues suggesting that obesity was socially acceptable.

In each experiment, participants displayed greater intent or actual consumption of unhealthy foods and less motivation to engage in a healthier lifestyle based on their increased belief that obesity was, in fact, more socially acceptable.

Looking at the results, co-authors Brent McFerran at the Beedie School of Business and Lily Lin from the College of Business & Economics at California State University suggest a link between the efforts to increase acceptance and body anxiety. Ironically creating the opposite effects of what marketing campaigns were hoping to achieve, the increased acceptance of larger body types has escalated the amount of thought consumers put into their appearance.

So what’s next?

Now, their task is to look at the implications the study shows for both public policy makers and advertisers. Researchers advise an even closer look at how body types are presented in advertising. Possibly now marketing campaigns won’t focus on any suggestion that a certain body shape is “good” or “bad.”

“Although this study demonstrates that accepting larger bodies is associated with negative consequences, research also shows that ‘fat-shaming’—or stigmatizing such bodies—fails to improve motivation to lose weight,” said McFerran.

“Since neither accepting nor stigmatizing larger bodies achieves the desired results, it would be beneficial for marketers and policy makers to instead find a middle ground—using images of people with a healthy weight, and more importantly, refraining from drawing attention to the body size issue entirely.”

Newly discovered mechanism keeps solar eruptions in check

Researchers from the US Department of Energy’s Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) announced on Wednesday that they had discovered a new mechanisms that could help prevent a potentially deadly solar eruption before it even leaves the sun.

Solar eruptions, they explain, are massive explosions that fire tons of plasma gas and radiation into space. Had the members of the original moon-landing crew encountered one, it likely would have killed them on the spot. Furthermore, the phenomenon can cause a geomagnetic storm to occur in the Earth’s atmosphere, damaging satellites and disrupting power grids.

As NASA prepares to send astronauts to Mars, it has stepped up efforts to identify solar eruption events so in attempts to protect satellites, power systems, and other equipment. As part of the US space agency’s efforts, PPPL physicist Clayton Myers and his colleagues have discovered a way to differentiate between potentially dangerous explosions and similar, harmless events.

The eruptions, better known as coronal mass ejections, occur when magnetic energy stored in the sun’s outer layer (corona) is suddenly released. That energy, Myers’ team reported in this week’s edition of the journal Nature, is typically stored in arched structures called magnetic flux ropes.

Experiments reveal why would-be eruptions sometime fail

As these long-lived flux ropes become twisted and destabilize, one of two things happens: they either erupt out into the solar system, producing a coronal mass ejection, or they fail and collapse back into the sun. Failures occur due to a force running along the flux rope, known as the guide magnetic field, which is strong enough to keep it from destabilizing fully.

In these instances, the guide field interacts with electric currents in the flux rope, causing a force that halts the eruptions. This force, known as the “toroidal field tension force,” is missing from existing models of solar eruptions, Myers and his fellow researchers found through the use of a special device known as the Magnetic Reconnection Experiment (MRX).

The MRX, they explained, is used to study how magnetic fields in plasma converge and separate violently. They used it to produce a flux rope and a “potential magnetic field” similar to the ones that enclose the rope in the solar corona, and discovered that the guide field, which may believed had been of little importance, plays a key role in preventing eruptions from occurring.

Once the flux rope begins to move outwards in the presence of a powerful enough guide field, the plasma essentially reorganizes itself. This process causes it to lose energy and collapse, said Myers, adding that “the presence of a substantial guide field should therefore  indicate a reduced probability of eruption.”

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Image credit: NASA

Archaeologists discover ruins of an ancient Greek port

Recent excavations taking place in an ancient partially-submerged harbor town has led to the surprising discovery of well-preserved wooden caissons, as well as the revelation that the port’s entrance canal was far larger than previously believed.

Researchers from the University of Copenhagen have been using cutting-edge techniques to investigate the Lechaion, one of two Corinthian ports active from the 6th century BCE to the 6th century CE. The goal of their expeditions has been to discover the layout and scale of this once bustling harbor town.

As part of a research initiative known as the Lechaion Harbour Project (LHP), the research team has conducted a digital and geophysical survey of the sea-facing side of the harbor. The archaeologists have found two monumental moles (a large rock construction used as a pier, not the animal) constructed of ashlar blocks, a breakwater, and a smaller mole, as well as the wooden caissons and the inner-harbor’s stone-lined entrance canal.

An image of one of the moles. (Credit: University of Copenhagen)

An image of one of the moles. (Credit: University of Copenhagen)

“We have found and documented several monumental architectural structures, built at great expense, showing that Lechaion was developed as a grand harbor to match the importance of her powerful metropolis, Corinth,” Dr. Bjørn Lovén, a University of Copenhagen archaeologist and the co-director of the LHP, said in a statement.

First well-preserved caissons ever discovered in Greece

The caissons, Lovén and his colleagues explained, were single-mission barges build for the sole purpose of sinking to deposit building materials and form the port’s foundation. Similar methods were used by Roman engineers at the Caesarea Maritima site in Israel during the first century BCE.

The discovery marks the first time that well-preserved caissons with their wooden elements still intact have been discovered in Greece. Preliminary carbon dating indicates that they were built around the same time as Leonidas Basilica, the largest Christian church of its era. Construction on the basilica began in the middle of the fifth century.

cassion

The Cassions being analyzed by a diver. (Credit: University of Copenhagen)

Historically, experts believed that harbor facilities such as this site were originally constructed during the Greek and Roman period, then repaired during the Byzantine period. However, the discovery of the mole paints a different picture, as it is a rare example of major harbor work that took place during the later era, and could indicate that other such projects were underway at this time.

As for the entrance canal, the archaeologists have thus far found 180 feet (55 meters) of its sides, as well as evidence that it was likely located up to 148 feet (45 meters) farther out to sea than the modern shoreline. Lovén’s team is currently exploring how the site might have changed over the years due to changing sea levels and coastal subsidence.

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Image credit:  University of Copenhagen

Comets, not asteroids, pose the real danger to Earth

Earth could be in serious danger due to outer space objects, but it isn’t asteroids that we should be panicking about, experts from Armagh Observatory and the University of Buckingham warn in a new Astronomy and Geophysics study – it’s comets that pose the real danger.

Specifically, the threat comes in the form of giant comets known as centaurs, which the authors explained are typically up to 100 km large and more massive than all of the near-Earth asteroids discovered thus far combined. These centaurs travel along unstable orbits that cross the paths of the outer planets, whose gravitational fields could deflect them towards our planet.

According to AFP and UPI reports, their calculations indicate that such a phenomenon occurs once every 40,000 to 100,000 years. As a centaur traveled closer to Earth, it would disintegrate in the atmosphere, leaving behind fragments likely to impact with the planet’s surface. Recent research has revealed that there are hundreds of these comets in the outer planetary system.

“The disintegration of such giant comets would produce intermittent but prolonged periods of bombardment lasting up to 100,000 years,” the study authors wrote, adding that such an event may be “inevitable” and that the “assessment of the extraterrestrial impact risk based solely on near-Earth asteroid counts, underestimates its nature and magnitude.”

Such an event could be worse than a nuclear winter, the authors claim

As team members Professors Bill Napier and Duncan Steel m the University of Buckingham and Professor Mark Bailey and Dr. David Asher from Armagh Observatory said in a statement, there was a centaur arrival that took place about 30,000 years ago. Debris from the massive comet was likely scattered throughout the inner solar system.

Thanks to the research of geologists and paleontologists, the scientists were also able to identify several episodes of environmental upheaval that occurred between 10,800 BCE and 2,300 BCE that were said to be consistent with the behavior of these comets. They believe that some of the planet’s most extreme mass extinction events could actually be linked to centaurs.

“In the last three decades we have invested a lot of effort in tracking and analyzing the risk of a collision between the Earth and an asteroid,” Professor Napier explained. “Our work suggests we need to look beyond our immediate neighborhood too, and look out beyond the orbit of Jupiter to find centaurs. If we are right, then these distant comets could be a serious hazard.”

As the team told AFP, no such event is “known to be imminent,” though they cautioned that the behavior of comets was somewhat unpredictable. Were something like this to happen, however, they said that it could inject “a mass of dust and smoke comparable to that assumed in nuclear winter studies” into the atmosphere. “Thus, in terms of magnitude, its ranking among natural existential risks appears to be high.”

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Feature Image: Because they are so distant from the Earth, Centaurs appear as pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes. Saturn’s 200-km moon Phoebe, depicted in this image, seems likely to be a Centaur that was captured by that planet’s gravity at some time in the past. Until spacecraft are sent to visit other Centaurs, our best idea of what they look like comes from images like this one, obtained by the Cassini space probe orbiting Saturn. NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft, having flown past Pluto six months ago, has been targeted to conduct an approach to a 45-km wide trans-Neptunian object at the end of 2018. (Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute)

Six newly restored homes unveiled at the site of Pompeii

Pompeii, the ancient Roman city buried beneath magma and volcanic ash following an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, is now home to six recently-restored homes officially unveiled to the public by the Italian government on Thursday, according to various media outlets.

The restored ruins, which CNN.com reports included bathhouses and mosaic tiles, came as part of a restoration process launched by the local authorities and the European Commission in 2012. As part of the partnership, 150 million Euros were contributed towards restoring buildings at the UNESCO World Heritage near Naples, as well as building a new drainage system.

Buildings that remained following the volcanic eruption provide a glimpse at life during the early days of the Roman Empire, but the website explained that flooding, tourism and neglect resulted in the site’s deterioration over the past few years. Ruins had been decaying and collapsing, CNN said, and some criticized Italy for failing to properly care for the site.

Renovated buildings include the Fullonica di Stephanus

On Thursday, Italian Prime Minister Matteo Renzi officially unveiled the six restored Pompeii domus (houses occupied by the upper class and wealthy freedmen in ancient Rome), NBC News reported. Among the buildings that were repaired were the Fullonica di Stephanus, the Casa di Paquius Proculus and the Casa del Criptoportico.

The Fullonica di Stephanus was one of the more highly anticipated restorations, The Guardian said. This structure was a specially designed laundry that featured large baths used to wash dirty tunics, a basin used to dye fabrics, a press for ironing and even a place to store urine, which was collected from public toilets and used as an ancient stain remover.

A state of emergency was declared at Pompeii in 2008, and just two years later, the House of Gladiators collapsed. In 2012, a Unesco report found that little work had been done to protect or restore the site, and recent years have been marked by union disputes and a lack of maintenance at the historic city, the UK newspaper said.

In announcing the completion of the domus restorations on Thursday, Renzi seemed optimistic, telling reporters, “We made news with the collapses, now we are making news with restoration.” Antonio Irlando, President of Cultural Heritage Observer, explained to the Associated Press that the houses were “of extraordinary importance, because they show a very original and particular cross section of life during ancient Pompeii.”

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Feature Image: Thinkstock

Genetically pure bison population discovered in southern Utah

A genetic analysis has found that a group of bison in southeastern Utah are genetically pure, meaning that they are directly descended from those what once roamed the American west, a study published this month in the journal PLOS One has revealed.

According to Associated Press and Utah Public Radio reports, scientists from Texas A&M and Utah State University found that the secluded creatures, which live in the Henry Mountains, are even more unique than other groups of bison that have not interbred with cattle.

As Dr. Johan du Toit, a professor of ecology and large mammal conservation at USU, explained to reporters, the Henry Mountain herds are “the only population of bison in existence which is now both genetically pure and is free of the disease brucellosis and is free-ranging on public land co-mingling with cattle and is legally hunted.”

Cross-breeding with cattle began in the 19th century, but after analyzing tissue samples from the approximately 350 bison from this herd, Dr. du Toit and his colleagues discovered that this “one of a kind” herd lacks cow DNA, and could ultimately improve bison recovery efforts.

Lack of cattle crossbreeding good news for species recovery efforts

As Utah Public Radio explained, cattle genes can alter the bison’s size and behavior. Ideally, conservationists looking to restore the herds and return them to national parks and other areas would prefer to use the rarer, pure DNA as part of their ongoing efforts.

Lead author Dr. Dustin Ranglack, now at Montana State University, told the AP that out of the 500,000 bison currently in the US, only 20,000 are considered wild bison. The Henry Mountain bison “represent a really important source for potential reintroduction projects that are trying to restore bison to a large portion of their native range,” he added.

Dr. Ranglack, Dr. du Toit and their fellow researchers conducted a genetic analysis on strands of hair collected from the tails of 129 creatures, and found no evidence of mitochondrial or nuclear introgression of cattle genes. The Henry Mountains bison, they wrote, originally descended from 20 animals brought to the area from Yellowstone National Park in the 1940s.

Keith Aune, director of the bison programs at the Wildlife Conservation Society, told the AP that the bison, which once numbered at least 30 million across North America, were nearly hunted to extinction in the 1800s. Ongoing efforts to bring them back focus on their ability to help keep the landscape healthy by grazing in grasslands and shedding hair for use in bird nests.

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Feature Image: Thinkstock

Giant ‘pickle’ asteroid will zoom by us on Christmas Eve UPDATED

UPDATE: Dec. 25, 2015. 12:15PM EST

All is calm. All is bright.

Check out some NASA imagery from the event:

christmas eve asteroid

These images of an asteroid that is at least 3,600 feet (1,100 meters) long were taken on Dec. 17, 2015, (left) and Dec. 22 (right) by scientists using NASA’s 230-foot (70-meter) Deep Space Network antenna at Goldstone, California. This asteroid, named 2003 SD2020, will safely fly past Earth on Thursday, Dec. 24, at a distance of 6.8 million miles (11 million kilometers). On Dec. 17, it was about 7.3 million miles (12 million kilometers) from Earth. By Dec. 22, it was closing in on its Christmas Eve flyby distance. (Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/GSSR)

ORIGINAL: Dec. 15, 2015

If you see an unusual object in the sky this December 24, it won’t be the Christmas Star guiding the wise men to Bethlehem. Rather, it will be a special holiday asteroid passing by the Earth at a safe distance of approximately 6.7 million miles (11 million km, or 0.074 AU).

At that distance, the object known as asteroid 2003 SD220 and asteroid 163899 will still be more than 28 times further away than the moon, meaning that your holiday plans are in no danger. The space rock won’t be, as Gizmodo so eloquently put it, “the Grinch that annihilated Christmas.”

Asteroid 2003 SD220, which as its name suggests was discovered 12 years ago, will likely only be visible to professional and amateur astronomers. Early estimates suggested it would be 0.7 to 1.5 miles (1.1 km to 2.5 km) in size, but more recent observations from the Arecibo telescope in Puerto Rico indicate it is approximately 1.25 miles (2 km) long.

Object will be hard to see, is unlikely to cause earthquakes

The asteroid looks somewhat reminiscent of a chicken tender or a pickle, and reports indicate that it’s traveling at a speed of roughly 17.5 miles per second. It appears to exhibit an extremely slow rotation of about one week, and once it passes by this holiday season, it will not return for three more years. NASA says it poses no threat for at least 200 years.

Some media outlets have reported that asteroid 163899’s Christmas Eve flyby has the potential to cause earthquakes, but those claims are false and misleading, according to Earthsky. For one thing, it is passing at too great a distance, and even if it were closer, the website notes that there is no evidence that a passing asteroid has any impact on Earth’s seismic activity.

The Arecibio Observatory will continue monitoring the object through December 17, and the Goldstone Antenna in California will be tracking it through December 20. Asteroid 2003 SD220 is on NASA’s Near-Earth Object Human Space Flight Accessible Targets Study (NHATS) list—meaning that it is a potential target for a manned spaceflight rendezvous mission.

Unfortunately, unlike 2015 TB145 (the Halloween asteroid), 2003 SD220 will be difficult to see without the use of high-end equipment, but at least it won’t ruin everybody’s holiday by crashing into the planet or causing massive earthquakes.

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Feature Image: Arecibo Observatory/NASA/NSF

Tudor gold recovered from Thames River likely came from ornate hat blown off in the wind

Twelve individual pieces of Tudor gold recovered along the muddy banks of the Thames river are so similar that they likely came from the same source object, possibly the ornate headdress of a passenger on a barge five centuries ago, new reports have indicated.

According to The Guardian and The Telegraph, archaeologists now believe that the 12 pieces of Tudor gold discovered by eight individual treasure hunters may have come from headwear that had blown off the head of a well-to-do seafarer during a particularly strong gust of wind.

They base the theory on the similarity of the tiny fragments, which have been found by treasure seekers armed with metal detectors over the span of several months. Each of the pieces date back to the early- to mid-16th century, explained Kate Sumnall from the Museum of London.

“There are no part-completed pieces or raw materials, so we can rule out a workshop. These are the finished article,” she told The Telegraph. “They have been coming up to the surface over the past few months, and it is a really remarkable find. To find just one would be incredible, to find so many is even better.”

Museum ultimately hopes to acquire all of the found fragments

Sumnall said that the pieces of Tudor gold were originally created between 1500 and 1550, and that they were the result of a massive amount of skilled craftsmanship. She added that there was likely fabric in between the fragments at one time, but that it had rotted away over the years.

Some of the pieces discovered along the Thames were inlaid with enamel or colored glass pieces, The Guardian reported. The gold content in each is said to be extremely low, but regardless, they are considered legal treasures that must be declared to finds officers like Sumnall.

“These artifacts have been reported to me one at a time over the last couple of years,” she said. “Individually they are all wonderful finds but as a group they are even more important. To find them from just one area suggests a lost ornate hat or other item of clothing.”

“The fabric has not survived and all that remains are these gold decorative elements that hint at the fashion of the time,” Sumnall added. The pieces must go through an inquest and be given an official value, she said, after which time the Museum hopes to acquire the entire lot of them.

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Feature Image: King Henry VIII. (Credit: Wikipedia)

Why do older guitars sound better?

Whether or not you’re a guitarist, you’ve probably at least once found yourself wondering why a musician who’s freakin’ loaded would play a beat-up old guitar that’s falling apart when they could easily afford 100 new ones.

We’re looking at you, Willie Nelson.

Aside from aesthetics (some people think beat-up stuff looks cool) and familiarity—every guitar is different, and players grow attached to them almost like family members—there’s another reason: instruments sound better as the wood they’re made from ages.

Well, technically, just “different”, but just about any guitarist you ask will say it’s “better”.

What happens when wood ages?

According to luthier (instrument builder) Alan Carruth, wood consists mainly of cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose, and all wood gradually loses hemicellulose—a soluble polysaccharide—to evaporation over a long period of time.

As this happens, the wood loses some weight, but remains just as stiff, allowing it to continue to support the weight of strings. With less mass to have to vibrate, the guitar’s woods vibrate more freely, making the instrument louder and allowing previously dampened frequencies to resonate.

The crystallization of sap inside the wood over time also contributes to the wood’s stiffness.

Likewise, lignin degrades as spruce (the wood most commonly used for a guitar’s top) is exposed to sunlight. Most notably, this results in a usually white wood taking on a yellow or orange hue that tends to be considered more aesthetically pleasing. Of course, degradation of lignin means a change in the wood’s physical structure as well, meaning that it contributes to the sonic side effects of aging.

Can this be done artificially?

While guitar manufacturers have long been selling guitars with aging toners to make their instruments look like they’ve seen more years than they really have, these only affect a guitar’s aesthetics. More recently, however, manufacturers have begun to treat woods with a process called torrefaction.

Wood destined to be used in guitar building is usually kiln-dried to a moisture level of about 6-10%. Usually, that is all that’s done, but torrefied wood is subsequently “cooked” at even higher temperatures in an oxygen-controlled environment until the wood’s moisture level reaches zero percent. Then, it’s removed from the kiln and brought back up to 3-6% humidity.

All of this makes for a lighter, stiffer, more resonant piece of lumber, with a bit of a darkened, amber hue—the rapid heating of the wood and evaporation of moisture causes the sap to crystalize and hemicellulose to degrade more quickly.

Whether accomplished artificially or naturally, the aging of wood affects the sound of an instrument, and most musicians hear it as a good effect.

Just don’t expect this guitar to improve with age.

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Feature Image: Thinkstock

Do fart-filtering underpants actually work?

“Was that you?”

This is my girlfriend, Lauren, every Sunday at church in regards to the fart smell sitting in the air around us. Most of the time, yes, it is me, and I tell her so because we’ve gotten past the point of being shy about things like this.

“Well it smells like a green smoothie,” she whispered to me one weekend. “Like celery. Can you smell that?”

This is a problem I often have in places I definitely shouldn’t. Long road trips with my boss, the first day of class after being dumped by my girlfriend and hoping the cute girl seated next to me will want to date, massage parlors: I have farted during, or in, each and every one of these, and prayed to God that it didn’t stink, only to find out, as always, that it did stink.

Then there’s the small matter of airplanes.

If you’ve ever been on a cross-country flight, or a flight to anywhere, and thought to yourself, “Jesus Christ, who farted?” you finally have your answer: It was me.

Even if I wasn’t on your plane, or near it, I’ll still shoulder the blame, as the number of times I’ve ripped ass in a cabin accounts for every flight ever flown, and every flight still to be flown. And I don’t really know why. I could be gas-less for weeks. I could eat a steady diet of grilled chicken and Beano. But the moment I walk onto a plane, I could power any number of offshore wind farms.

This was why, in December, I was more than happy to publish “Why we fart more on airplanes.” Weeks earlier, I’d covered a story on “Why we enjoy the smell of our own farts”, and it’d done pretty well. And seeing as the airplane one relied on a little more science, and answered a question that had bothered me (and thousands of others) for years, I eagerly sent it to a writer.

Love at first sight

What I failed to anticipate was just how much this story would change my life. The information was insightful, yeah. But it was something in the last paragraph that stopped me in my tracks.

“Until we are in a situation where the Department of Homeland Security is protecting us from farts,” wrote redOrbit contributor John Hopton, “there are steps of our own we can take, such as wearing fart-filtering underwear.”

“Hold on,” I said, squinting at my computer. “Fart-filtering…what?”

I immediately clicked on the link and found myself on a page for a company called Shreddies–a British brand that specializes in undergarments that either filter flatulence or, if you suffer from incontinence, soak up urine. I was enthralled.

“Shreddies ‘flatulence filtering underwear’ have activated carbon cloth (called Zorflex) sandwiched between layers of regular fabric,” explained their Science-Behind-Shreddies section. “The specialty layer absorbs and traps the odor before it can make its way out into the open.”

At this point, I was weeping for joy. Why had I never heard of this technology? Where had it been my entire life? And did they also come in “noise-canceling”?

I didn’t even need to research Zorflex to know that I needed a pair. If not for my own entertainment, for the sake of the people forced to be around me.

And if for anything else, for a fun science experiment.

I’d already made one foray into the underwear world. Why not another?

And so began the greatest experiment of my life

After talking to their media department, Shreddies graciously sent me two pairs to test: their “support boxer”, which looks and feels like a standard cotton boxer brief, except it has a thick pad that covers, for lack of a better term, your entire butt crack; and their “hipster,” which is made from material not unlike what you’d find on a bicycle short.

There were also specific instructions: On how to wash them (with baking soda only); on how they should fit (with no gaps in the legs or waist); and how you should stand or sit when releasing wind. It was this last part that I enjoyed the most.

“To avoid flatulence escaping around the filter, we recommend that you stand with your legs together and try to let your wind out slowly. When sitting, keep your knees together and sit upright so that flatulence cannot escape forward. If your Shreddies fit correctly, and you ensure that your flatulence passes through the rear panel, all odor will be removed.”

Game on, I thought. Game on.

But first, a brief science lesson

When your gas has caused somebody to pull over their car, get out, and consider heaving, you think you’d take a minute to find out what kinds of foods caused that reaction–and avoid them like hell.

I’d known beer–specifically cheap beer–to be a problem. And champagne. But as far as food, I wasn’t sure. Ethnic foods are a no-brainer; so, too, are beans; but I wasn’t about to spend my next week eating fajita quesadillas and curry. I’d end up in the emergency room.

So, like a good scientist, I turned to Google.

It turns out that smelly flatulence is the result of sulfur, and more specifically, hydrogen sulfide. Normal flatus is composed of three odorless gases: carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and methane. But when you consume foods high in sulfur – i.e. eggs, dairy products, meat, cauliflower, broccoli, kale, cabbage, and brussels sprouts  – bacteria in your gut break these down and create a new gas as a byproduct: hydrogen sulfide.

This is what stinks like rotten eggs, and gives you the ability to singe eyebrows, peel paint, vaporize chairs, kill dogs under 20lbs, or whatever metaphor you want to use.

In other words: I’d found my grocery list.

Testing

I chose to test them first at the place I’d recently been having the most trouble: church.

I went to the grocery store on a Saturday; picked up hamburgers, cheddar cheese, brussels sprouts, chicken, quinoa, black beans, corn, guacamole, and a 12-pack of Corona; and proceeded to pound as much as I could that evening.

I feel like a packed musket, I wrote in my journal before going to bed. I’ve never been more excited in my life.

But I was also a little nervous. One of the questions people have asked me during this experiment is, “How do you know your farts smelled, though?” In other words, “How do you know the lack of smell is the Shreddies doing, and not just your lack of hydrogen sulfide?” It was an important question to ask.

The only way I saw around this, aside from strapping some kind of sulfur sensor to my cheeks, was to let one fly without them on; see how bad it was; then, if it was bad, get them on and continue to let it rip.

And this is how I went about it that first morning. While my girlfriend was still asleep, I very quietly dutch-ovened myself and found that, yes, I was ripe for the picking. So I hoisted on the “support boxer” and prepared for the morning ahead.

I turn to my journal for the play-by-play

[8:30 AM] Put on boxer briefs. Reviewed correct sitting position, now headed to work on the couch.

[8:44 AM] Let two fly. No smell.

[9:02 AM] Let another fly. Felt big. No smell.

[10:29 AM] Just released a good one in the car. No smell.

[10:40 AM] Arrived at church. Picked a seat in the middle of the room. Sat down. Assumed the position.

[11:02 AM] Letting fly. No smell.

[11:05 AM] Stood to sing. Assumed the position. No smell.

[11:10 AM] Lauren looked at me, concerned. I told her I’ve been doing it all morning, no problems.

[11:13 AM] Lauren is now singing with reckless abandon. Taking very deep breaths.

[11:30 AM] Still no smells.

[12:30 PM] Service is over. Had no issues with smells. Back to the drawing board.

And that’s how it went for the rest of the week.

Conclusions, results, etc.

The best way I can describe Shreddies–at least the flatulence-filtering ones–is to compare them to the American flag used at the battle of Fort McHenry during the War of 1812. This was the oversized one that withstood shot after shot from the British navy; the one that was still standing the next morning, and would go on to inspire Francis Scott Key to write the lyrics to our national anthem.

Because that’s exactly how it felt with these things.

No matter what I threw at them, or how often I did it, they held. It didn’t matter if you physically pumped hydrogen sulfide into my body, or forced me to jump on a trampoline after eating chili, the bastards weren’t going anywhere. They’re just that reliable.

The only downside I found – besides price and ease of washing – was with comfort, specifically with the hipsters. While the support boxer was cozy and reliable, I found the hipster to ride up terribly after sitting for a bit. Many times throughout the day I’d have to get up and adjust myself, which isn’t a problem when you work from home, but is if you’re in a corporate setting, or at a party with finger foods.

In summation, places/situations Shreddies are necessary if you have flatulence issues:

  • First dates
  • Meetings
  • Car rides
  • Flights of any length
  • Bar mitzvahs/bat mitzvahs/quinceaneras
  • Funerals
  • Etc.

And situations Shreddies won’t work even if you don’t have flatulence issues:

  • Hot yoga
  • Movie dates where you eat half a bucket of popcorn

I attempted both of these and can tell you, beyond the shadow of a doubt, that no matter how good your flatulence-filtering underpants are, they will not withstand. Especially with the popcorn.

Gummy candy in excess is also a bad idea.

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Feature Image: Courtesy of Shreddies

Six gross things you might find in perfume

Buying perfume can be an ordeal, especially when you’re trying to find the perfect scent. You try tons of samples and walk around with 10 different scents on you until you finally find the perfect one. But how perfect is it really? Take a second look at the ingredients in your new favorite spray, because these ingredients may not be worth the scent—you don’t want sperm whale vomit on your body. (Or do you?)

1. Civet
Allegedly found in products from Chanel, Cartier, and Lancome, this ingredient comes from the anal glands of civet cats. This fecal ingredient comes from scraping the anal sacs of these animals and is placed into your sweet-smelling perfumes. We don’t see anything wrong with this, though. Who doesn’t want to smell like civet feces?
2. Castoreum
Castoreum, known for its strong leathery scent, comes from the yellowish oily secretions of male beavers. Its used in many perfumes for its lustful and wildly scent. Who knew beaver secretions could do that job?
3. Musk
We’re not finished with animals just yet—yet another sexual gland secretion, musk comes from the male musk deer, now an endangered animal close to extinction. While perfumers are working to create synthetic alternatives of musk (thank goodness), the original musk is still a valuable product.
4. Hyraceum
Known as Hyraceum or Hyrax, this ingredient comes from the crystalized fecal matter of the hyrax, a tiny animal found in Africa and the Middle East. Not always used for perfume, it was also once used as remedies for epilepsy, kidney problems, and female hormone disorders.
5. Hay
Yes, you heard right— this dried cut grass is found as an ingredient in some perfumes. The hay you find as animal food is also part of the earthy and sweetish smell you find in your colognes and perfumes. Hopefully it also doesn’t cause hay allergies…
6. Ambergris
Ambergris comes from the digestive byproducts of endangered sperm whales, hence why it’s such a rare and valuable perfume ingredient. Typically it is either vomited up or pooped out of these whales…just what every girl wants to smell like—whale poop.
The better question to ask after all these ingredients remains, how did someone come up with using these ingredients to make them smell…good? It almost taints that floral smell you might currently be wearing…au naturel, anyone?
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Feature Image: Thinkstock

This weird, newly discovered ninja lanternshark glows in the dark

The ocean is a scary place full of unknown creatures and unexplored depths, and some creatures are difficult to find due to their location, small population size, or effective camouflage. Although this new creature had all three of these going for it, a group of scientists recently discovered a new species of shark off the coast of Central America.

Etmopterus benchleyi, also called the ninja laternshark, is a small black creature discovered in the eastern Pacific Ocean named after Jaws author Peter Benchley. According to Hakai Magazine, lead author Victoria Elena Vásquez coined the “ninja lanternshark” designation after a conversation with her 8 year old cousins. (They wanted to go with “Super Ninja Shark”, but Vásquez decided to rein it in just a bit)

“We don’t know a lot about lanternsharks. They don’t get much recognition compared to a great white,” said Vásquez, a graduate student at the Pacific Shark Research Center out of California.

New shark, strange abilities

According to the study published in the Journal of the Ocean Science Foundation this month, most specimens were collected off the coast of Costa Rica at a depth between 836-1443 meters. All specimens collected were entirely black with small white patches around their eyes and mouth—making them very difficult to spot in the dark water.

While not much is known about the shark so far, the creature has some interesting abilities. The shark uses photopores to create a faint glow to blend in with the low light levels of its habitat. Vásquez thinks the shark’s dark coloration coupled with the photopores would make for a very effective predator.

The ninja lanternshark is fairly small—the largest female collected was 515 mm (1.68 feet) long and the largest male was 325 mm (1.06 feet) long.

The ocean still has many untapped secrets, and we’re excited to see more of them.

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Feature Image: Vicky Vasquez

Crows witnessed making tools for the first time on film

By creating miniature video cameras and attaching them to wild New Caledonian crows, two researchers from the UK have obtained footage showing how the resourceful birds fashion hook-like stick tools that they then used to hunt for insect prey.

Thanks to their invention, Dr. Jolyon Troscianko from the University of Exeter and Dr. Christian Rutz from the University of St. Andrews were able to record two instances of the tropical corvids constructing their tools—including one that took a crow a little over one minute to build.

The birds then used their tools to help them search for food in tree crevices and leaf litter on the ground, the study authors reported Wednesday in the journal Biology Letters. This marks the first time that the tool-making behaviors of these crows has ever been caught on film.

“While fieldworkers had previously obtained brief glimpses of hooked stick tool manufacture, the only video footage to date came from baited feeding sites, where tool raw materials and probing tasks had been provided to crows by scientists. We were keen to get close-up video of birds making these tools under completely natural conditions,” Dr. Troscianko, a postdoctoral researcher in Exeter’s Biosciences Department, said in a statement.

Footage shows that crows place a high value on their instruments

Dr. Troscianko noted that it is “notoriously difficult” to observe New Caledonian crows, due to their tropical habitats as well as the fact that they can be easily disturbed. “By documenting their fascinating behavior with this new camera technology, we obtained valuable insights into the importance of tools in their daily search for food,” he added.

So how did they do it? They created special, tiny video cameras that weighed roughly the same as a British two-pound coin, and attached them to the tail feathers of the crows. Each camera had a miniscule radio beacon integrated into it that allowed the researchers to recover them after they had monitored the birds for a few days, Dr. Ruiz explained.

“These cameras store video footage on a micro-SD card, using technology similar to that found in people’s smart phones. This produced video recordings of stunning quality,” he said. The team used a total of 19 cameras, and as they reviewed footage, they found two instances of the tropical birds fashioning the bug-catching tools out of twigs and leaves.

The researchers said they had to go through the footage frame-by-frame because the activity was hard to spot at first, and not only did they catch two instances of the birds fashioning these tools, but they also saw one crow recover a finished tool that it had dropped. Dr. Ruiz believes that this indicates that the crows value their tools, and do not simply dispose of them after use.

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Feature Image: Dr. Jolyon Troscianko

Archaeologists discover massive cache of cannonballs at fort in India

While digging a trench for a light-and-sound show at Fort St. Angelo in Kannur, India, workers discovered more than 35,000 cannonballs in what experts are calling the one of the largest caches of such ammunition ever discovered at a single archaeological site.

According to Archaeology and The Times of India, laborers were digging trenches for electricity cables when they first spotted the first of the cannonballs on December 10. Ultimately, a total of 35,950 cannonballs were discovered, including roughly 5,300 of them on Sunday alone.

The excavation, which was conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), reported that the artillery was spread across four different pits. The task, archaeologist T Sreelakshmi noted, is now to preserve the cannonballs by chemically treating them.

Sreelakshmi added that ASI is “not sure whether such a huge stock has ever been unearthed from anywhere in the world,” and that they planned to check historical records “to find out why such a huge quantity was dumped in the pits, thus making sure it would not be reused.”

Currently unknown which country the ammunition belonged to

The archaeologists warned that chemical treatment could take several weeks, and that they would be unable to reveal anything about the ammunition’s history until the process was completed. No further excavations are planned for the time being, said ASI archaeologist C Kumaran.

Fort St. Angelo is located southern India on the coast of the Arabian Sea, and Archaeology noted that it was originally constructed by the Portuguese in 1505. It was later captured by the Dutch in 1663, told to king Ali Raja of Arakkal in 1772, and seized by the British in 1790. It was last used in 1947 and is now considered to be a protected monument under the auspices of the ASI.

Archaeologists have also repaired seaward-facing cannons previously fixed in the bastions of the fort walls that were previously used by the Portuguese and the British, according to International Business Times. It is currently unclear if the newfound cannonballs belonged to the Portuguese, the Dutch, or the British. They should know more once the dating process is complete.

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Feature Image: Thinkstock

Overuse of pesticides is devastating China’s crops, study says

While the Great Recession is over, many of its aftereffects are still being felt—especially in China, where a shift in agricultural practices driven by the economic crisis may have devastating results, according to a new study that spanned 10 years.

In the early 2000s, the Chinese government decided to invest in chemical production facilities, which served them well on the international market until the global recession. Then, as exports plummeted, these facilities began to flood local markets with their products—including now-cheaper insecticides. Farmers began spraying their fields in earnest.

But, according to a study published in Ecological Applications, this sudden surge in pesticide usage had an unusual effect: While helping to eliminate much of a one of the top 100 invasive species, a pest known as the whitefly, it appears to actually have driven the growth of a different subtype of the same species.

This would all be fine and dandy, except for one enormous issue: This now-booming subtype of whitefly is an enormous plant disease carrier—and as of 2012, it had become dominant in all but two of the 28 provinces and territories examined. (Six, including contentious Tibet and Taiwan, were not included in the study.)

Pesky pesticides (or something like that)

The whitefly is not native to China, and has actually invaded 60 other countries in the past two decades as well. These pests have caused enormous agricultural losses, and naturally many countries have turned to pesticides to reign in the damage—but when they are used improperly, it causes even more problems.

This seems to be the case in China, where the majority of crops come from small family farmers. These farmers are generally less educated by their government in terms of proper insecticide use. And because of this, and the sudden availability of pesticides, many have been dousing their crops to eradicate the whiteflies.

But, as the international team of researchers discovered, the two subspecies of whiteflies prominent in China react differently to pesticides. In areas without the chemicals, the non-disease carrying subtype (known as MEAMI, the Middle East-Asia Minor I subtype) almost always out-competes the subtype that spreads plant viruses. But when faced with three different insecticides in their study on tomato and cucumber plants, the MED flies were generally resistant to them—and began to exclude the MEAMI flies entirely.

In fact, other studies found that MED (the disease-carrier) is 1200-1900 times more resistant to certain pesticides than MEAMI—which was clearly reflected in its spread across China. As the pesticide use shot up, MED began to dominate.

And as mentioned before, unlike MEAMI, MED is a strong disease vector. In particular, it carries tomato yellow curl leaf virus, a devastating crop disease. In India—which has a farming infrastructure similar to China—outbreaks of the virus lead to 50-100 percent yield losses of tomato crops.

Or, to put it in a different perspective: In the early 2000s, this virus led to a $300 million loss of crops in the US and Europe.

But MED can carry hundreds of viruses that can harm crops, not just tomato yellow curl leaf virus—making it an even more worrisome threat.

There is likely to already be a good amount of damage wrought throughout China’s crops, but the Chinese government doesn’t make such figures publicly available. However, as the pest has touched (two out of 28) or dominated (26 out of 28) every single studied province, it’s safe to say it’s more than a small issue.

The problems don’t end there, though: One specific family of pesticides—neonicotinoids—has been tied to the alarming plummet in pollinator populations, like bees. In fact, the European Commission has approved a two-year ban on their widespread use, in efforts to combat the decline of pollinators.

However, Chinese farmers continue to increase their use neonicotinoids and other synthetic insecticides, which as of yet have unknown ecological effects. Meaning it’s not just their crops that are in danger, but their pollinator populations as well—and the other areas of the ecosystem downstream from both of them, too.

Even in 700 BC, politics and religion caused conflict at the dinner table

As people gather together with friends and family this holiday season, most will make an effort to avoid wandering into the potential conversational minefields that are politics and religion, but new research indicates that conflicts over such issues are far from a new thing.

In research published this week in Current Anthropology, University of Colorado anthropology professor Arthur A. Joyce and Sarah Barber from the University of Central Florida reported they had discovered proof that such tensions existed more than 2,000 years ago.

Joyce and Barber discovered evidence in several Mexican archaeological sites dating back to 700 BC that contradicted the commonly-held believe that religion served to unite early cultures in the region. In fact, it many cases it had the exact opposite effect, according to their research.

“It doesn’t matter if we today don’t share particular religious beliefs, but when people in the past acted on their beliefs, those actions could have real, material consequences. It really behooves us to acknowledge religion when considering political processes,” Barber said in a statement.

Role of religion in social life, politics has changed little

The new study is the result of several years of field research conducted in the lower Río Verde valley of Oaxaca, which is the Pacific coastal lowlands of Mexico. Joyce and Barber analyzed archaeological evidence from 700 BC through 250 AD, the time during which states were first established in the area.

People living in the Rio Verde valley during this time often took part in religious rites, including offerings and the burial of people in cemeteries. In comparison, the upper society in the highland Valley of Oaxaca served as intermediaries between their citizens and the gods, which ultimately led to conflict with traditional community leaders, the authors explained.

“In both the Valley of Oaxaca and the Lower Río Verde Valley, religion was important in the formation and history of early cities and states, but in vastly different ways,” said Joyce. “Given the role of religion in social life and politics today, that shouldn’t be too surprising.”

For instance, in Río Viejo, the capital of the lower Río Verde valley, the citizens built massive temples by 100 AD. Yet, despite the effort required to create such structures, those same temples wound up being abandoned just a little over 100 years later, the research team discovered.

“An innovative aspect of our research is to view the burials of ancestors and ceremonial offerings in the lower Verde as essential to these ancient communities,” said Joyce, who was the lead author of the study. “Such a perspective is also more consistent with the worldviews of the Native Americans that lived there.”

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Feature Image: Thinkstock

Plutonium-238 produced in the US for the first time in 30 years

For the first time in nearly three decades, American scientists have produced a plutonium-238 sample, with a research team at the Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee announcing the feat in a statement released on Tuesday.

Plutonium-238 is a radioactive isotope that produces heat as it decays, and the new sample is in the same oxide power form used to manufacture heat sources for power systems, including those used in spacecraft instruments, they explained. It is the first sample of the substance produced in the US since the late 1980s, when production at a South Carolina plant was halted.

Officials at the laboratory will now analyze the sample to ensure its plutonium-238 content and its chemical purity. Once that is finished, they will ensure that the production process is at peak efficiency and make any necessary adjustments, and then the isotope will be produced en masse.

“Once we automate and scale up the process, the nation will have a long-range capability to produce radioisotope power systems such as those used by NASA for deep space exploration,” said Bob Wham of the ORNL’s Nuclear Security and Isotope Technology Division.

Process could ultimately produce up to 1.5 kg of plutonium

The plutonium-238 production process, which has been underway for two years and is funded in part by NASA, could allow ORNL and colleagues at Idaho National Laboratory to provide up to 300 to 400 grams of the material per year for NASA to use as a power source.

The production process begins in Idaho, where neptunium-237 feedstock is housed and shipped to the Tennessee facility as needed. Engineers mix neptunium oxide with aluminum, the research team explained, then press it into high-density pellets that are irradiated. This process turns them into neptunium-238, which rapidly decays into plutonium-238.

The pellets are dissolved, and ORNL staff separate the plutonium from leftover neptunium using a special chemical process. Plutonium is then converted into an oxide and shipped to Los Alamos National Laboratory for storage, while the remaining neptunium is recycled and used to produce more plutonium-238. Currently, about 35 kg worth are available for NASA missions.

“With this initial production of plutonium-238 oxide, we have demonstrated that our process works and we are ready to move on to the next phase of the mission,” said Wham. Once they are able to scale-up and automate the process, he and his colleagues believe that they will be able to produce an average of1.5 kg of the substance per year.

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Feature Image: Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Mysterious golden object found in ancient Jewish cemetery has finally been identified

A mysterious object that baffled experts at the Israeli Antiquities Authority for nearly six months has been identified thanks to social media-based crowdsourcing efforts, and ironically the item in question did not even turn out to be a rare and valuable historical relic. Bummer.

According to NBC News, the shiny, oddly-shaped gold object was discovered at a cemetery in Jerusalem. It was described as being shaped like a rolling pin and weighed nearly 19 pounds (8.5 kilograms), but exactly what the object was and what it was used for was unknown.

In fact, after it was first discovered by a maintenance worker, there were concerns that it might be an explosive device of some sort. A bomb squad was called to detonate the object, which was ultimately unharmed by the controlled blast, and the plot thickened.

“To tell you the truth I’ve never seen anything like this before,” Amir Ganor, who heads up the IAA’s robbery prevention unit, told NBC News. He even joked that it was possible that “aliens had landed from outer space and brought the object” with them.

It’s a ‘gilded Isis Beamer,’ which isn’t as cool as it sounds

Ganor and his colleagues took the object to a jeweler, who examined and X-rayed it. He found that the item was solid metal and coated in 24-carat gold, but beyond that, his analysis offered no clues as to its origin or potential use. Puzzled, IAA officials turned to Facebook.

In a post, they asked followers if they had any idea what the item was. Ultimately, as the Times of Israel reported on Tuesday, one Italian man identified the object as something called a “gilded Isis Beamer,” which may sound like something that would be a valuable artifact. But it’s not.

In reality, the golden object is a modern, New Age-type device designed to provide people with energy, harmony, and healing. The item is sold online by a German company called Weber. It can be used at home or while traveling and is designed to help “naturopaths” with “energy healing”, reports indicate. It is one of several “bio-energy systems” sold by Weber.

IAA officials told NBC News that they hoped that whoever was responsible for hiding the object in the cemetery would “contact us and inform us why it was buried in an ancient structure and to whom of the dead they wished to give positive energy.”

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Feature Image: Israel Antiquities Authority

China’s Yutu rover discovers a new kind of rock on the moon

Rocks collected by the Chinese Yutu moon rover in 2013 are unlike any other kind of regolith ever found on the lunar surface, suggesting that the history of the moon could be more complex than previous believed, according to a new Nature Communications study.

Zongcheng Ling of Shandong University in Weihai, China and his colleagues conducted an in-depth analysis of rocks collected by Yutu from its landing spot—a crater now known as Zi Wei located in the Mare Imbrium region of the moon. It marked the first study of geological samples from the moon in roughly four decades, according to Gizmodo.

Mare Imbrium originally formed about three billion years ago when an extremely large object hit the moon, causing lava to flood the surface and eventually cool. The more recently formed Zi Wei crater exposed some of the basalt rock that formed when that lava cooled, which is what was collected by the Yutu rover and analyzed by Ling’s team in the new study.

They found that the basalt had completely different concentrations of several minerals, including iron oxide, calcium oxide, and titanium dioxide, than were found in samples collected during the Apollo program and the Russian Luna probes during the 1970s, said New Scientist. The findings suggest that the moon is more geologically diverse than previously believed.

Impactors may have disrupted the moon’s mantle formation

Once Yutu collected samples of the lunar regolith, it analyzed those rocks using its alpha-particle X-ray spectrometer and near-infrared hyper spectral imager, and found what Gizmodo said were “intermediate concentrations” of titanium oxide in the form of a mineral called ilmenite. Ilmenite is one of the first minerals to cool out of magma due to its low melting point, they noted.

The mineral sinks into the mantle as it crystallizes, forming pockets that are rich in titanium. The compositions of the Apollo and Luna samples were either high or low in titanium based on levels of ilmenit found in various regions. The intermediate levels found in the new sample suggest that impacts during the moon’s magma ocean stage may have disrupted mantle formation.

“We’re still trying to figure out exactly how this happened,” study co-author Bradley Jolliff said in a statement, according to Gizmodo “The diversity tells us that the Moon’s upper mantle is much less uniform in composition than Earth’s,” he added, “and correlating chemistry with age, we can see how the Moon’s volcanism changed over time.”

The analysis also helped solve a mystery originally discovered by the Chang’e-3 lander while it was in orbit. The spacecraft detected both ilmenite and olivine, a mineral that crystallizes out of magma far earlier than ilmenite, in the same region of the landing site. The oddity was explained, however, by the discovery that the olivine is iron-rich, which lowers its melting temperature.

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Feature Image: Chinese Lunar Exploration Program/ China National Space Administration

Cassini bids farewell to Enceladus with one final flyby

Earlier this week, NASA’s Cassini spacecraft began sending back the first images and science data from its final up-close flyby of Enceladus, passing by the sixth largest moon of Saturn at a distance of 3,106 miles (4,999 km) last weekend, the US space agency has revealed.

The encounter took place on Saturday, December 19 at 12:49pm EST (9:49pm PST) and marked the 22 time that Cassini had approached Enceladus during its mission. Though it will continue to monitor the moon’s activity from afar, NASA confirmed there would be no more flybys.

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NASA’s Cassini spacecraft paused during its final close flyby of Enceladus to focus on the icy moon’s craggy, dimly lit limb, with the planet Saturn beyond. (Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute)

Earl Maize, Cassini project manager at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, said that his team was experiencing “feelings of both sadness and triumph” in light of that realization. “While we’re sad to have the close flybys behind us, we’ve placed the capstone on an incredible decade of investigating one of the most intriguing bodies in the solar system,” he continued.

“We bid a poignant goodbye to our close views of this amazing icy world,” added Linda Spilker, the mission’s project scientist at JPL. “Cassini has made so many breathtaking discoveries about Enceladus, yet so much more remains to be done to answer that pivotal question, ‘Does this tiny ocean world harbor life?’”

Project made Enceladus a target in the search for extraterrestrial life

Shortly after it arrived at Saturn, Cassini detected geologic activity on the icy moon, which led NASA scientists to alter their original flight plans so they could maximize how often the probe flew past Enceladus. The spacecraft would eventually find evidence that there is a global ocean beneath the frozen crust of the surface of the moon.

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During its final close flyby of Saturn’s moon Enceladus, NASA’s Cassini spacecraft captured this view featuring the nearly parallel furrows and ridges of the feature named Samarkand Sulci. (Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute)

The Cassini mission will continue through September 2017, and while the probe will continue to monitor Enceladus, future encounters will come no closer than four times the distance of the past weekend’s flyby. The mission has helped make Enceladus “one of the top future destinations for exploration and the search for signs of potential life beyond Earth,” NASA said.

On October 14, Cassini made its closest ever flyby of the moon’s north polar regions, passing by at an altitude of 1,142 miles (1,839 kilometers). Two weeks later, it made a daring deep dive into Enceladus’ plume, just 30 miles above the satellite’s south pole. Doing so enabled it to obtain the most accurate measurements ever of the plume’s composition.

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Feature Image:  NASA’s Cassini spacecraft peered out over the northern territory on Saturn’s moon Enceladus, capturing this view of two different terrain types. A region of older terrain covered in craters that have been modified by geological processes is seen at right, while at left is a province of relatively craterless, and presumably more youthful, wrinkled terrain. Cassini acquired the view during its final close flyby of Enceladus, on Dec. 19, 2015. (Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute)

Gamers’ brains are actually rewired from playing video games

Video games have been linked to helping us combat pain—but they might be useful for combatting other problems, too, as a recent study has found that video games appear to rewire gamers’ brain—for better and for worse.

The researchers, who are from the University of Utah School of Medicine and Chung-Ang University in South Korea, completed MRI scans of nearly 200 adolescent (ages 10-19) boys. They discovered in those with Internet gaming disorder—a psychological condition listed in the handbook of psychological disocerders, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)—that compulsive video gamers’ brains had hyperconnectivity in multiple brain networks.

“Most of the differences we see could be considered beneficial. However the good changes could be inseparable from problems that come with them,” said senior author Jeffrey Anderson, M.D., Ph.D., associate professor of neuroradiology at the University of Utah School of Medicine, in a statement.

According to the study published in Addiction Biology, in the 106 boys with the disorder, brain regions that process hearing or vision were more likely to coordinate strongly with the salience network—the area that focuses attention on important events so that we can take action more swiftly.

In games, this means that a player could be able to react more quickly to something like an incoming sniper attack or an arrow to the knee. In real life, it could help you notice a ball rolling in front of your car, or an incoming criticism attack from an in-law.

“Hyperconnectivity between these brain networks could lead to a more robust ability to direct attention toward targets, and to recognize novel information in the environment,” said Anderson. “The changes could essentially help someone to think more efficiently.”

Jedi-level reflexes come with a dark side

One of the next steps will be to determine if boys with these brain differences perform better on tests regarding to reactions and reflexes.

Unfortunately, though, these Jedi-level reflexes come with a dark side: The boys with the disorder also had increased connectivity between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the temporoparietal junction. This sort of change is also seen in people with conditions such as schizophrenia, Down’s syndrome, and autism—and in people with poor impulse control.

“Having these networks be too connected may increase distractibility,” said Anderson.

However, it’s currently not known whether persistent video gaming actually rewires the brain in these ways, or if those who like to game already have this sort of wiring to begin with.

All in all, the 106 heavy gamers had six brain regions with significantly more connectivity, as compared to the 80 boys with Internet gaming disorder. Five of these areas, however, were involved with the salience network—the connections that helped improve attentiveness—so perhaps these changes were more for the good than for the bad.

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Feature Image: Thinkstock

Here are the scientific benefits of Rudolph’s red nose

Rudolph the Red-Nosed reindeer absolutely had a very shiny nose, but did it really help him find his way through a foggy Christmas Eve sky?

The study was recently published in the journal Frontiers For Young Minds, a journal focused on answering questions aimed at children in hopes of stimulating an interest in science. Nathaniel J. Dominy is a professor of Anthroplogy at Dartmouth who claims Rudolph’s effectiveness comes from the Arctic reindeer’s special vision.

Dominy claims that “New findings about the color vision of reindeer could hold important clues about the value of a luminescent nose.” Reindeer can see in the ultraviolet spectrum which is invisible to humans, but it helps reindeer spot important things such as predators and food.

This is important because the sun’s position in the sky during an arctic winter casts much more UV-light than normal, so being able to see UV rays would allow Rudolph to lead the sleigh more effectively.

The reindeer’s eyes also adjust to see different types of light depending on the season—yellows and reds during the summer and blues during the winter. Fog would block out most blue light, so Rudolph’s red nose is necessary to see through the fog.

Such a vascular nose would lose heat very quickly in the cold winter air, so Dominy claims in a statement that “it is imperative for children to provide high-calorie foods to help Rudolph replenish his energetic reserves of Christmas Eve.”

So please don’t forget to put out some Christmas cookies for Santa and his team of reindeer. Dominy claims that the frequency of foggy weather is declining worldwide due to climate change, but there’s still a chance that Rudolph’s luminescent nose will be necessary on this Christmas Eve.

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Feature Image: DreamWorks Classics